Monotherapy for the treatment of parkinson&#39;s disease with cyclooxygenase-2 (COX 2) inhibitor(S)

ABSTRACT

A method of treating, preventing, or inhibiting PD, in a subject in need of such treatment, inhibition or prevention. The method comprises treating the subject with one or more cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor(s), ester(s), salt(s) or prodrug(s) thereof, wherein the amount of the cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor(s), ester(s), salt(s) or prodrug(s) thereof constitutes a PD treatment, inhibition or prevention effective amount of the COX 2 inhibitor(s).

[0001] This application claims benefit of provisional application number 60/373,317 filed Apr. 18, 2002.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0002] (1) Field of the Invention

[0003] The present invention relates to methods for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. More particularly, the present invention is directed to methods for the treatment of Parkinson's disease with cyclooxygenase-2 (COX 2) inhibitor(s).

[0004] (2) Description of Related Art

[0005] Parkinson's disease (PD) is a serious neurodegenerative disorder afflicting millions of people world-wide. It is believed that more than 1% of the population over 65 years of age is afflicted with PD. Standaert et al., Update on the Management of Parkinson's Disease, Contemporary Clinical Neurology, Vol. 77, No. 1, pp. 169-183 (January 1993). Prevalent PD related symptoms include resting tremors (e.g., shaking or 4-8 Hz pill rolling tremor of one hand which is maximal at rest, diminishes during movement and is absent during sleep; trembling on one side or both sides of the body in the hands, arms, legs, jaw, and face), rigidity (muscle stiffness; “ratchet” type resistance to classic movement), bradykinesia (a reduction in the amount of spontaneous movement, loss of normal movement and/or slow initiation of voluntary movement), and postural defects (inability to maintain an upright posture of the trunk, especially while standing or walking often manifested as as a stooped postural position together with a gait). Additional signs of PD include reduced blinking, microphonia (a lowered voice volume characterized by speaking softly in monotone voice), micrographia (typically, reduced writing width size with increase in vertical character height manifested as small, cramped, spidery handwriting), impaired ocular conversion, sialorrhea (excessive salivation), and/or seborrhea (abnormally facial oily appearance on the forehead), loss of facial expression, and freezing (especially when crossing a doorway), sleeping difficulties (inability/difficulty with changing position during sleep), swallowing difficulties, constipation, fatigue or general malaise, losing track of a word or thought, irritability or sadness for no apparent reason, lack of expression in the face, lack of animation, depression, hallucinations, senility, emotional changes, urinary problems, skin problems, among others.

[0006] Presently, PD therapy is limited to symptomatic relief of PD associated symptoms. Accordingly, such therapy does not arrest the continuing neurodegenerative nature of PD. Consequently, the symptoms of PD continue to worsen over time. Ultimately, at an advanced stage of PD, patients become bedridden, unable to eat, and tend to aspirate (inhale material into the respiratory tract) often. At such point, patients require full-time supportive care. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, M. H. Beers and R. Berkow, Eds., Seventeenth Edition, Publisher: Merck Research Laboratories, Whitehouse Station, N.J., pp. 1466-1470 (1999).

[0007] The neurological degenerative changes associated with PD include the gradual loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, resulting in a continuing loss of dopaminergic terminals in the striatum. Thus, during the early stages of PD, when there is a lesser degree of neurodegeneration of dopaminergic neurons, PD responds better to symptomatic drug treatment. However, as PD progresses with increased loss of dopaminergic neurons, PD becomes more resistant to drug treatment requiring larger and/or more frequent dosing with drugs that yield an attenuated beneficial result for increasingly shorter periods of time. Often, prolonged treatment with higher and/or more frequent doses results in undesirable side effects from the drug treatment itself.

[0008] According to Lang, A. E., and Lozano, A. M., Parkinson's Disease, Review Article, Second of Two Parts, The New England Journal of Medicine, pp. 1130-1143 (Oct. 15, 1998), levodopa is the gold standard for the treatment of PD. For levodopa to be effective for the symptomatic treatment of PD, it must first cross the blood brain barrier (BBB) to reach the brain. There, the levodopa is converted to dopamine which provides symptomatic relief of PD. However, when levodopa alone is administered orally, only about 1% reaches the brain where it is converted to dopamine. Orally administered levodopa is metabolized by a decarboxylase enzyme into a metabolite form that does not easily cross the BBB. Up to 99% of orally administered levodopa is metabolized by decarboxylase and is then unable to cross the BBB. To increase the amount of levodopa that crosses the BBB into the brain, the decarboxylase metabolization of levodopa is blocked with a decarboxylase inhibitor known as carbidopa. Thus, when co-administered with carbidopa, a substantially increased amount of levodopa reaches the brain where levodopa is converted to dopamine, which counteracts the undesirable symptoms of PD. When co-administered with carbidopa, the beneficial effects of levodopa become more pronounced in combating the symptoms of PD.

[0009] However, levodopa's effectiveness typically lasts for about 5 years after initiation of therapy with levodopa/carbidopa therapy. Thereafter, continued use of levodopa is much less effective in the treatment of PD and its continued use is associated with numerous side effects. See Lang et al. at 1135, Table 3, listing various problems associated with prolonged levodopa PD therapy. These problems include early suboptimal symptom control, treatment resistant motor and non-motor symptoms, motor fluctuations, dyskinesias (abnormal involuntary movements), psychiatric disturbances and transient “on” and “off” episodes. Because the effectiveness of levodopa is limited to about 5 years of levodopa/carbidopa therapy in combating PD symptoms, it is desirable to delay the initiation of levodopa/carbidopa therapy to relieve the more severe PD associated symptoms present during the latter stages of PD. Thus, there is a need to find other drugs for treating PD.

[0010] Under certain conditions of chronic neurodegeneration, neuroinflammation may be observed. However, the functional consequences of chronic inflammatory processes in the brain are not well understood.

[0011] Recently, compounds that selectively inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 have been discovered. These COX 2 inhibiting compounds selectively inhibit the activity of COX 2 to a greater extent than the activity of cyclooxygenase-1 (COX 1). COX 1 has been shown to be a constitutively produced enzyme that is involved in many of the non-inflammatory regulatory functions associated with prostaglandins. COX 2, on the other hand, is an inducible enzyme having significant involvement in the inflammatory process. See, Needleman, P. et al., J. Rheumatol., 24, Suppl.49:6-8 (1997). See, Fu, J. Y., et al., J. Biol. Chem., 265(28):16737-40 (1990). The new COX 2-selective inhibitors are believed to offer advantages that include avoiding harmful side effects associated with the inhibition of COX 1.

[0012] Information on the identification and/or use of cyclooxygenase-2-selective inhibitors can be found in references such as: (1) Buttgereit, F. et al., Am. J. Med., 110(3 Suppl. 1):13-9 (2001); (2) Osiri, M. et al, Arthritis Care Res., 12(5):351-62 (1999); (3) Buttar, N. S. et al., Mayo Clin. Proc., 75(10):1027-38 (2000); (4) Wollheim, F. A., Current Opin. Rheumatol., 13:193-201 (2001); (5) U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,434,178 (1,3,5-trisubstituted pyrazole compounds); (6) 5,476,944 (derivatives of cyclic phenolic thioethers); (7) 5,643,933 (substituted sulfonylphenylheterocycles); 5,859,257 (isoxazole compounds); (8) 5,932,598 (prodrugs of benzenesulfonamide-containing COX 2 inhibitors); (9) 6,156,781 (substituted pyrazolyl benzenesulfonamides); (10) 6,110,960 (for dihydrobenzopyran and related compounds), (11) 6,180,651 (includes disclosure of BMS-347070), (12) Hillson, J. L. et al., Expert Opin. Pharmacother., 1(5):1053-66 (2000), (for rofecoxib, Vioxx®, Merck & Co., Inc.); (13) Everts, B. et al., Clin. Rheumatol., 19(5):331-43 (2000), (for celecoxib, Celebrex®, Pharmacia Corporation, and rofecoxib); (14) Jamali, F., J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci., 4(1):1-6 (2001), (for celecoxib); (15) U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,521,207 and 5,760,068 (for substituted pyrazolyl benzenesulfonamides); (16) Davies, N. M. et al., Clinical Genetics, Abstr. at http://www.mmhc.com/cg/articles/CG0006/davies.html (for celecoxib, valdecoxib, parecoxib, deracoxib, and rofecoxib); (17) http://www.celebrex.com (for celecoxib); (18) http://www.docguide.com/dg.nsf/PrintPrint/F1F8DDD2D8B0094085256 98F00742187, May 9, 2001 (for etoricoxib, MK-663, Merck & Co., Inc.); (19) Saag, K. et al., Arch. Fam. Med., 9(10):1124-34 (2000), (for rofecoxib); and (20) International Patent Publication No. WO 00/24719 (for ABT 963, Abbott Laboratories).

[0013] Various U.S. patents and patent applications discuss the treatment of a number of neurodegenerative and other diseases which include the following: (21) U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,005,000, 6,262,073 B1, and 6,136,832 (use of certain compounds of the formula

[0014] . . . ); (22) U.S. Pat. No. 6,063,807 (use of salt AB where A=a cyclooxygenase inhibitor,

[0015] . . . ); (23) U.S. Pat. No. 6,277,878 B1 (use of

[0016] . . . ); (24) U.S. Pat. No. 6,303,613 B1 (use of

[0017] with celecoxib or MK 966 . . . ); (25) U.S. Pat. No. 6,303,628 B1 (use of

[0018] . . . ); (26) U.S. Pat. No. 6,306,842 (use of X-L-Y where

[0019] X=non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID),

[0020] L=an optional linker/spacer and

[0021] Y=a selective COX 2 inhibitor); (27) U.S. Pat. No. 6,147,080 (use of

[0022] . . . ); (28) U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2001/0025044 A1(use of compounds similar to those disclosed in 27); (29) U.S. Pat. No. 6,294,170 (use of celecoxib . . . ); and (30) U.S. Pat. No. 6,265,436 (use of

[0023] . . . ).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0024] According to one embodiment, the invention is directed to a novel method for the treatment, inhibition and/or prevention of PD (and/or its symptoms) comprising administering, to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of a cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor comprising a chromene that is a substituted benzopyran or is a chroman.

[0025] According to another embodiment, the invention is directed to a novel method for the treatment, inhibition and/or prevention of PD comprising administering, to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor which is I, II, III, IV, V, B-1, B-2, . . . B-231, or B-232 or combination(s) thereof (or an ester, an isomer, a salt, or a prodrug thereof, respectively). COX 2 inhibitors suitable for use with the present inventive method include, but are not limited to, those COX 2 inhibitors disclosed in Tables 1 and 1A below. TABLE 1 No. Structure (COX 2 Inhibitor) I

II

III

IV

V

[0026] TABLE 1A First Drug Name and/or Structure (COX 2 Inhibitor) B-1

B-2

B-3

B-4

B-5

B-6

B-7

B-8

B-9

B-10

B-11

B-12

B-13

B-14

B-15

B-16

B-17

B-18

B-19

B-20

B-21

B-22

B-23

B-24

B-25

B-26

B-27

B-28

B-29

B-30

B-31

B-32

B-33

B-34

B-35

B-36

B-37

B-38

B-39

B-40

B-41

B-42

B-43

B-44

B-45

B-46

B-47

B-48

B-49

B-50

B-51

B-52

B-53

B-54

B-55

B-56

B-57

B-58

B-59

B-60

B-61

B-62

B-63

B-64

B-65

B-66

B-67

B-68

B-69

B-70

B-71

B-72

B-73

B-74

B-75

B-76

B-77

B-78

B-79

B-80

B-81

B-82

B-83

B-84

B-85

B-86

B-87

B-88

B-89

B-90

B-91

B-92

B-93

B-94

B-95

B-96

B-97

B-98

B-99

B-100

B-101

B-102

B-103

B-104

B-105

B-106

B-107

B-108

B-109

B-110

B-111

B-112

B-113

B-114

B-115

B-116

B-117

B-118

B-119

B-120

B-121

B-122

B-123

B-124

B-125

B-126

B-127

B-128

B-129

B-130

B-131

B-132

B-133

B-134

B-135

B-136

B-137

B-138

B-139

B-140

B-141

B-142

B-143

B-144

B-145

B-146

B-147

B-148

B-149

B-150

B-151

B-152

B-153

B-154

B-155

B-156

B-157

B-158

B-159

B-160

B-161

B-162

B-163

B-164

B-165

B-166

B-167

B-168

B-169

B-170

B-171

B-172

B-173

B-174

B-175

B-176

B-177

B-178

B-179

B-180

B-181

B-182

B-183

B-184

B-185

B-186

B-187

B-188

B-189

B-190

B-191

B-192

B-193

B-194

B-195

B-196

B-197

B-198

B-199

B-200

B-201

B-202

B-203

B-204

B-205

B-206

B-207

B-208

B-209

B-210

B-211

B-212

B-213

B-214

B-215

B-216

B-217

B-218 CS-502 B-219 LAS-34475 B-220 LAS-34555 B-221 S-33516 B-222 SD-8381 B-223 L-783003 B-224

B-225 D-1367 B-226 L-748731 B-227

B-228 CGP-28238 B-229

B-230 GR-253035 B-231

B-232 S-2474

[0027] According to one embodiment, the invention is directed to a novel method for the treatment of PD comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor comprising a chromene that is a substituted benzopyran, or is a chroman.

[0028] According to yet another embodiment, the invention is directed to a novel method for the treatment of PD comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor selected from the group consisting of substituted benzothiopyrans, dihydroquinolines, or dihydronaphthalenes having the general Formula (I):

[0029] wherein n is an integer which is 0,1,2,3 or 4;

[0030] wherein G is O, S or NR^(a);

[0031] wherein R^(a) is alkyl;

[0032] wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of H and aryl;

[0033] wherein R² is selected from the group consisting of carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarbonyl and alkoxycarbonyl;

[0034] wherein R³ is selected from the group consisting of haloalkyl, alkyl, aralkyl, cycloalkyl, and aryl optionally substituted with one or more radicals selected from alkylthio, nitro and alkylsulfonyl; and

[0035] wherein each R⁴ is independently selected from the group consisting of one or more radicals selected from H, halo, alkyl, aralkyl, alkoxy, aryloxy, heteroaryloxy, aralkyloxy, heteroaralkyloxy, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, alkylamino, arylamino, aralkylamino, heteroarylamino, heteroarylalkylamino, nitro, amino, aminosulfonyl, alkylaminosulfonyl, arylaminosulfonyl, heteroarylaminosulfonyl, aralkylaminosulfonyl, heteroaralkylaminosulfonyl, heterocyclosulfonyl, alkylsulfonyl, hydroxyarylcarbonyl, nitroaryl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, aralkylcarbonyl, heteroarylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and alkylcarbonyl;

[0036] or wherein R⁴ together with carbon atoms to which it is attached and the remainder of the ring E forms a naphthyl radical;

[0037] or an isomer thereof and

[0038] including the diastereomers, enantiomers, racemates, tautomers, salts, esters, amides and prodrugs thereof.

[0039] According to another embodiment, the invention is also directed to a novel method for the treatment of PD comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor comprising cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor having the general formula (II):

[0040] or an ester, an isomer, a salt or a prodrug thereof,

[0041] wherein:

[0042] D is selected from the group consisting of an unsaturated, a partially unsaturated, and a saturated hetercyclyl ring, and an unsaturated, partially unsaturated, and saturated carbocyclic ring, provided that Formula (II) is not celecoxib (B-18) or refecoxib (B-21);

[0043] R¹³ is selected from the group consisting of heterocyclyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl and aryl, wherein R¹³ is optionally substituted at a substitutable position with one or more radicals selected from alkyl, haloalkyl, cyano, carboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, hydroxyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkoxy, amino, alkylamino, arylamino, nitro, alkoxyalkyl, alkylsulfinyl, halo, alkoxy and alkylthio;

[0044] R¹⁴ is methyl or amino; and

[0045] R¹⁵ is H, halo, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, oxo, cyano, carboxyl, cyanoalkyl, heterocyclyloxy, alkyloxy, alkylthio, alkylcarbonyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloalkyl, heterocyclyl, cycloalkenyl, aralkyl, heterocyclylalkyl, acyl, alkylthioalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, alkoxycarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, aralkylcarbonyl, aralkenyl, alkoxyalkyl, arylthioalkyl, aryloxyalkyl, aralkylthioalkyl, aralkoxyalkyl, alkoxyaralkoxyalkyl, alkoxycarbonylalkyl, aminocarbonyl, aminocarbonylalkyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, N-arylaminocarbonyl, N-alkyl-N-arylaminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonylalkyl, carboxyalkyl, alkylamino, N-arylamino, N-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-N-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-N-arylamino, aminoalkyl, alkylaminoalkyl, N-arylaminoalkyl, N-aralkylaminoalkyl, N-alkyl-N-aralkylaminoalkyl, N-alkyl-N-arylaminoalkyl, aryloxy, aralkoxy, arylthio, aralkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, aminosulfonyl, alkylaminosulfonyl, N-arylaminosulfonyl, arylsulfonyl, or N-alkyl-N-arylaminosulfonyl.

[0046] According to another embodiment, the present invention is also directed to a novel method for the treatment of PD comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor comprising a phenylacetic acid derivative represented by the general formula (III):

[0047] or an ester, an isomer, a salt or a prodrug thereof;

[0048] wherein:

[0049] R¹⁶ is methyl or ethyl;

[0050] R¹⁷ is chloro or fluoro;

[0051] R¹⁸ is hydrogen or fluoro;

[0052] R¹⁹ is hydrogen, fluoro, chloro, methyl, ethyl, methoxy, ethoxy or hydroxy;

[0053] R²⁰ is hydrogen or fluoro; and

[0054] R²¹ is chloro, fluoro, trifluoromethyl or methyl,

[0055] provided that R¹⁷, R¹⁸, R¹⁹ and R²⁰ are not all fluoro when R¹⁶ is ethyl and R¹⁹ is H.

[0056] According to another embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for the treatment of Parkinson's disease comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a cyclooxygenase-2 (COX 2) inhibitor to a patient in need thereof, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor has the structural Formula (IV):

[0057] or an isomer, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof,

[0058] wherein:

[0059] X is O or S;

[0060] J is a carbocycle or a heterocycle;

[0061] R²² is NHSO₂CH₃ or F;

[0062] R²³ is H, NO₂, or F; and

[0063] R²⁴ is H, NHSO₂CH₃, or (SO₂CH₃)C₆H₄.

[0064] According to another embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for the treatment of Parkinson's disease comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a cyclooxygenase-2 (COX 2) inhibitor to a patient in need thereof, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor has the structural Formula (V):

[0065] or an isomer or pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof, wherein:

[0066] T and M independently are phenyl, naphthyl, a radical derived from a heterocycle comprising 5 to 6 members and possessing from 1 to 4 heteroatoms, or a radical derived from a saturated hydrocarbon ring having from 3 to 7 carbon atoms;

[0067] Q¹, Q² , L¹ or L² are independently hydrogen, halogen, lower alkyl having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms, trifluoromethyl, or lower methoxy having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms; and

[0068] at least one of Q¹, Q², L¹ or L² is in the para position and is —S(O)_(n)—R, wherein n is 0, 1, or 2 and R is a lower alkyl radical having 1 to 6 carbon atoms or a lower haloalkyl radical having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms, or an —SO₂NH₂; or,

[0069] Q¹ and Q² are methylenedioxy; or

[0070] L¹ and L² are methylenedioxy; and

[0071] R²⁵, R²⁶, R²⁷, and R²⁸ are independently hydrogen, halogen, lower alkyl radical having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms, lower haloalkyl radical having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms, or an aromatic radical selected from the group consisting of phenyl, naphthyl, thienyl, furyl and pyridyl; or,

[0072] R²⁵ and R²⁶ are O; or,

[0073] R²⁷ and R²⁸ are O; or,

[0074] R²⁵, R²⁶, together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a saturated hydrocarbon ring having from 3 to 7 carbon atoms; or,

[0075] R²⁷, R²⁸, together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a saturated hydrocarbon ring having from 3 to 7 carbon atoms.

[0076] The present invention is also directed to a novel method of treating, improving or preventing a cyclooxygenase-2 mediated disorder in a subject, said method comprising treating the subject having or susceptible to said disorder with a therapeutically-effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising any one of the cyclooxygenase-2-selective inhibitors described above.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0077] In accordance with the present invention, it has been discovered that PD can be treated by administering one or more cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor(s) disclosed in Tables 1 and 1A above to subject(s) in need of such treatment. The amount of the cyclooxygenase-2-selective inhibitor(s) that is/are used in the treatment of PD is selected so that the amount is therapeutically effective for the treatment, inhibition and/or prevention of PD.

[0078] The following definitions are provided in order to aid the reader in understanding the detailed description of the present invention.

[0079] The term “hydrido” denotes a single hydrogen atom (H). This hydrido radical may be attached, for example, to an oxygen atom to form a hydroxyl radical or two hydrido radicals may be attached to a carbon atom to form a methylene (—CH₂—) radical. Where used, either alone or within other terms such as “haloalkyl”, “alkylsulfonyl”, “alkoxyalkyl” and “hydroxyalkyl”, the term “alkyl” embraces linear or branched radicals having one to about twenty carbon atoms or, preferably, one to about twelve carbon atoms. More preferred alkyl radicals are “lower alkyl” radicals having one to about ten carbon atoms. Most preferred are lower alkyl radicals having one to about six carbon atoms.

[0080] Examples of such radicals include methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, iso-amyl, hexyl and the like.

[0081] The term “alkenyl” embraces linear or branched radicals having at least one carbon-carbon double bond of two to about twenty carbon atoms or, preferably, two to about twelve carbon atoms. More preferred alkenyl radicals are “lower alkenyl” radicals having two to about six carbon atoms. Examples of alkenyl radicals include ethenyl, propenyl, allyl, propenyl, butenyl and 4-methylbutenyl.

[0082] The term “alkynyl” denotes linear or branched radicals having two to about twenty carbon atoms or, preferably, two to about twelve carbon atoms. More preferred alkynyl radicals are “lower alkynyl” radicals having two to about ten carbon atoms. Most preferred are lower alkynyl radicals having two to about six carbon atoms. Examples of such radicals include propargyl, butynyl, and the like.

[0083] The terms “alkenyl”, “lower alkenyl”, embrace radicals having “cis” and “trans” orientations, or alternatively, “E” and “Z” orientations.

[0084] The term “cycloalkyl” embraces saturated carbocyclic radicals having three to twelve carbon atoms. More preferred cycloalkyl radicals are “lower cycloalkyl” radicals having three to about eight carbon atoms. Examples of such radicals include cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl and cyclohexyl. The term “cycloalkenyl” embraces partially unsaturated carbocyclic radicals having three to twelve carbon atoms. More preferred cycloalkenyl radicals are “lower cycloalkenyl” radicals having four to about eight carbon atoms. Examples of such radicals include cyclobutenyl, cyclopentenyl, cyclopentadienyl and cyclohexenyl.

[0085] The term “halo” means halogens such as fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine. The term “haloalkyl” embraces radicals wherein any one or more of the alkyl carbon atoms is substituted with halo as defined above. Specifically embraced are monohaloalkyl, dihaloalkyl and polyhaloalkyl radicals. A monohaloalkyl radical, for one example, may have either an iodo, bromo, chloro or fluoro atom within the radical. Dihalo and polyhaloalkyl radicals may have two or more of the same halo atoms or a combination of different halo radicals. “Lower haloalkyl” embraces radicals having one to six carbon atoms. Examples of haloalkyl radicals include fluoromethyl, difluoromethyl, trifluoromethyl, chloromethyl, dichloromethyl, trichloromethyl, pentafluoroethyl, heptafluoropropyl, difluorochloromethyl, dichlorofluoromethyl, difluoroethyl, difluoropropyl, dichloroethyl and dichloropropyl.

[0086] The term “hydroxyalkyl” embraces linear or branched alkyl radicals having one to about ten carbon atoms any one of which may be substituted with one or more hydroxyl radicals. More preferred hydroxyalkyl radicals are “lower hydroxyalkyl” radicals having one to six carbon atoms and one or more hydroxyl radicals. Examples of such radicals include hydroxymethyl, hydroxyethyl, hydroxypropyl, hydroxybutyl and hydroxyhexyl.

[0087] The terms “alkoxy” and “alkyloxy” embrace linear or branched oxy-containing radicals each having alkyl portions of one to about ten carbon atoms. More preferred alkoxy radicals are “lower alkoxy” radicals having one to six carbon atoms. Examples of such radicals include methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy, butoxy and tert-butoxy. The term “alkoxyalkyl” embraces alkyl radicals having one or more alkoxy radicals attached to the alkyl radical, that is, to form monoalkoxyalkyl and dialkoxyalkyl radicals. The “alkoxy” radicals may be further substituted with one or more halo atoms, such as fluoro, chloro or bromo, to provide haloalkoxy radicals. More preferred haloalkoxy radicals are “lower haloalkoxy” radicals having one to six carbon atoms and one or more halo radicals. Examples of such radicals include fluoromethoxy, chloromethoxy, trifluoromethoxy, trifluoroethoxy, fluoroethoxy and fluoropropoxy.

[0088] The term “aryl”, alone or in combination, means a carbocyclic aromatic system containing one, two or three rings wherein such rings may be attached together in a pendent manner or may be fused. The term “aryl” embraces aromatic radicals such as phenyl, naphthyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, indane and biphenyl. Aryl moieties may also be substituted at a substitutable position with one or more substituents selected independently from alkyl, alkoxyalkyl, alkylaminoalkyl, carboxyalkyl, alkoxycarbonylalkyl, aminocarbonylalkyl, alkoxy, aralkoxy, hydroxyl, amino, halo, nitro, alkylamino, acyl, cyano, carboxy, aminocarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl and aralkoxycarbonyl.

[0089] The terms “heterocyclo”, “heterocyclyl”, and “heterocycle” embrace saturated, partially unsaturated and unsaturated heteroatom-containing ring-shaped radicals, where the heteroatoms may be selected from nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen. Examples of saturated heterocyclo, heterocyclyl, and heterocycle radicals include saturated 3 to 6-membered heteromonocyclic groups containing 1 to 4 nitrogen atoms (e.g. pyrrolidinyl, imidazolidinyl, piperidino, piperazinyl, etc.); saturated 3 to 6-membered heteromonocyclic group containing 1 to 2 oxygen atoms and 1 to 3 nitrogen atoms (e.g. morpholinyl, etc.); saturated 3 to 6-membered heteromonocyclic group containing 1 to 2 sulfur atoms and 1 to 3 nitrogen atoms (e.g., thiazolidinyl, etc.). Examples of partially unsaturated heterocyclo, heterocyclyl, and heterocycle radicals include dihydrothiophene, dihydropyran, dihydrofuran and dihydrothiazole.

[0090] The term “heteroaryl” embraces unsaturated heterocyclo radicals. Examples of unsaturated heterocyclo radicals, also termed “heteroaryl” radicals include unsaturated 3 to 6 membered heteromonocyclic group containing 1 to 4 nitrogen atoms, for example, pyrrolyl, pyrrolinyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, pyridyl, pyrimidyl, pyrazinyl, pyridazinyl, triazolyl (e.g., 4H-1,2,4-triazolyl, 1H-1,2,3-triazolyl, 2H-1,2,3-triazolyl, etc.) tetrazolyl (e.g. 1H-tetrazolyl, 2H-tetrazolyl, etc.), etc.; unsaturated condensed heterocyclo group containing 1 to 5 nitrogen atoms, for example, indolyl, isoindolyl, indolizinyl, benzimidazolyl, quinolyl, isoquinolyl, indazolyl, benzotriazolyl, tetrazolopyridazinyl (e.g., tetrazolo[1,5-b]pyridazinyl, etc.), etc.; unsaturated 3 to 6-membered heteromonocyclic group containing an oxygen atom, for example, pyranyl, furyl, etc.; unsaturated 3 to 6-membered heteromonocyclic group containing a sulfur atom, for example, thienyl, etc.; unsaturated 3- to 6-membered heteromonocyclic group containing 1 to 2 oxygen atoms and 1 to 3 nitrogen atoms, for example, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, oxadiazolyl (e.g., 1,2,4-oxadiazolyl, 1,3,4-oxadiazolyl, 1,2,5-oxadiazolyl, etc.) etc.; unsaturated condensed heterocyclo group containing 1 to 2 oxygen atoms and 1 to 3 nitrogen atoms (e.g. benzoxazolyl, benzoxadiazolyl, etc.); unsaturated 3 to 6-membered heteromonocyclic: group containing 1 to 2 sulfur atoms and 1 to 3 nitrogen atoms, for example, thiazolyl, thiadiazolyl (e.g., 1,2,4-thiadiazolyl, 1,3,4-thiadiazolyl, 1,2,5-thiadiazolyl, etc.) etc.; unsaturated condensed heterocyclo group containing 1 to 2 sulfur atoms and 1 to 3 nitrogen atoms (e.g., benzothiazolyl, benzothiadiazolyl, etc.) and the like. The term also embraces radicals where heterocyclo radicals are fused with aryl radicals. Examples of such fused bicyclic radicals include benzofuran, benzothiophene, benzopyran, and the like. Said “heterocyclo group” may have 1 to 3 substituents such as alkyl, hydroxyl, halo, alkoxy, oxo, amino and alkylamino.

[0091] The term “alkylthio” embraces radicals containing a linear or branched alkyl radical, of one to about ten carbon atoms attached to a divalent sulfur atom. More preferred alkylthio radicals are “lower alkylthio” radicals having alkyl radicals of one to six carbon atoms. Examples of such lower alkylthio radicals are methylthio, ethylthio, propylthio, butylthio and hexylthio. The term “alkylthioalkyl” embraces radicals containing an alkylthio radical attached through the divalent sulfur atom to an alkyl radical of one to about ten carbon atoms. More preferred alkylthioalkyl radicals are “lower alkylthioalkyl” radicals having alkyl radicals of one to six carbon atoms. Examples of such lower alkylthioalkyl radicals include methylthiomethyl.

[0092] The term “alkylsulfinyl” embraces radicals containing a linear or branched alkyl radical, of one to ten carbon atoms, attached to a divalent —S(═O)— radical. More preferred alkylsulfinyl radicals are “lower alkylsulfinyl” radicals having alkyl radicals of one to six carbon atoms. Examples of such lower alkylsulfinyl radicals include methylsulfinyl, ethylsulfinyl, butylsulfinyl and hexylsulfinyl.

[0093] The term “sulfonyl”, whether used alone or linked to other terms such as alkylsulfonyl, denotes respectively divalent radicals —SO₂—. “Alkylsulfonyl” embraces alkyl radicals attached to a sulfonyl radical, where alkyl is defined as above. More preferred alkylsulfonyl radicals are “lower alkylsulfonyl” radicals having one to six carbon atoms. Examples of such lower alkylsulfonyl radicals include methylsulfonyl, ethylsulfonyl and propylsulfonyl. The “alkylsulfonyl” radicals may be further substituted with one or more halo atoms, such as fluoro, chloro or bromo, to provide haloalkylsulfonyl radicals.

[0094] The terms “sulfamyl”, “aminosulfonyl” and “sulfonamidyl” denote NH₂O₂S—.

[0095] The term “acyl” denotes a radical provided by the residue after removal of hydroxyl from an organic acid. Examples of such acyl radicals include alkanoyl and aroyl radicals. Examples of such lower alkanoyl radicals include formyl, acetyl, propionyl, butyryl, isobutyryl, valeryl, isovaleryl, pivaloyl, hexanoyl and trifluoroacetyl.

[0096] The term “carbonyl”, whether used alone or with other terms, such as “alkoxycarbonyl”, denotes —(C═O)—. The term “aroyl” embraces aryl radicals with a carbonyl radical as defined above. Examples of aroyl include benzoyl, naphthoyl, and the like and the aryl in said aroyl may be additionally substituted.

[0097] The terms “carboxy” or “carboxyl”, whether used alone or with other terms, such as “carboxyalkyl”, denotes —CO₂H. The term “carboxyalkyl” embraces alkyl radicals substituted with a carboxy radical. More preferred are “lower carboxyalkyl” which embrace lower alkyl radicals as defined above, and may be additionally substituted on the alkyl radical with halo. Examples of such lower carboxyalkyl radicals include carboxymethyl, carboxyethyl and carboxypropyl. The term “alkoxycarbonyl” means a radical containing an alkoxy radical, as defined above, attached via an oxygen atom to a carbonyl radical. More preferred are “lower alkoxycarbonyl” radicals with alkyl portions having 1 to 6 carbons. Examples of such lower alkoxycarbonyl (ester) radicals include substituted or unsubstituted methoxycarbonyl, ethoxycarbonyl, propoxycarbonyl, butoxycarbonyl and hexyloxycarbonyl.

[0098] The terms “alkylcarbonyl”, “arylcarbonyl” and “aralkylcarbonyl” include radicals having alkyl, aryl and aralkyl radicals, as defined above, attached to a carbonyl radical. Examples of such radicals include substituted or unsubstituted methylcarbonyl, ethylcarbonyl, phenylcarbonyl and benzylcarbonyl.

[0099] The term “aralkyl” embraces aryl-substituted alkyl radicals such as benzyl, diphenylmethyl, triphenylmethyl, phenylethyl, and diphenylethyl. The aryl in said aralkyl may be additionally substituted with halo, alkyl, alkoxy, haloalkyl and haloalkoxy. The terms benzyl and phenylmethyl are interchangeable.

[0100] The term “heterocycloalkyl” embraces saturated and partially unsaturated heterocyclo-substituted alkyl radicals, such as pyrrolidinylmethyl, and heteroarylsubstituted alkyl radicals, such as pyridylmethyl, quinolylmethyl, thienylmethyl, furylethyl, and quinolylethyl. The heteroaryl in said heteroaralkyl may be additionally substituted with halo, alkyl, alkoxy, haloalkyl and haloalkoxy.

[0101] The term “aralkoxy” embraces aralkyl radicals attached through an oxygen atom to other radicals. The term “aralkoxyalkyl” embraces aralkoxy radicals attached through an oxygen atom to an alkyl radical. The term “aralkylthio” embraces aralkyl radicals attached to a sulfur atom. The term “aralkylthioalkyl” embraces aralkylthio radicals attached through a sulfur atom to an alkyl radical.

[0102] The term “aminoalkyl” embraces alkyl radicals substituted with one or more amino radicals. More preferred are “lower aminoalkyl” radicals. Examples of such radicals include aminomethyl, aminoethyl, and the like. The term “alkylamino” denotes amino groups that have been substituted with one or two alkyl radicals. Preferred are “lower N-alkylamino” radicals having alkyl portions having 1 to 6 carbon atoms. Suitable lower alkylamino may be mono or dialkylamino such as N-methylamino, N-ethylamino, N,N-dimethylamino, N,N-diethylamino or the like. The term “arylamino” denotes amino groups that have been substituted with one or two aryl radicals, such as N-phenylamino. The “arylamino” radicals may be further substituted on the aryl ring portion of the radical. The term “aralkylamino” embraces aralkyl radicals attached through an amino nitrogen atom to other radicals. The terms “N-arylaminoalkyl” and “N-aryl-N-alkylaminoalkyl” denote amino groups which have been substituted with one aryl radical or one aryl and one alkyl radical, respectively, and having the amino group attached to an alkyl radical. Examples of such radicals include N-phenylaminomethyl and N-phenyl-N-methylaminomethyl.

[0103] The term “aminocarbonyl” denotes an amide group of the formula —C(═O)NH₂. The term “alkylaminocarbonyl” denotes an aminocarbonyl group that has been substituted with one or two alkyl radicals on the amino nitrogen atom. Preferred are “N-alkylaminocarbonyl” and “N,N-dialkylaminocarbonyl” radicals. More preferred are “lower N-alkylaminocarbonyl” and “lower N,N-dialkylaminocarbonyl” radicals with lower alkyl portions as defined above. The term “aminocarbonylalkyl” denotes a carbonylalkyl group that has been substituted with an amino radical on the carbonyl carbon atom.

[0104] The term “alkylaminoalkyl” embraces radicals having one or more alkyl radicals attached to an aminoalkyl radical. The term “aryloxyalkyl” embraces radicals having an aryl radical attached to an alkyl radical through a divalent oxygen atom. The term “arylthioalkyl” embraces radicals having an aryl radical attached to an alkyl radical through a divalent sulfur atom.

[0105] As used herein, the term “carbocycle” means a hydrocarbon ring radical. Carbocyclic rings are monocyclic or are fused, bridged, or spiro polycyclic rings. Unless otherwise specified, monocyclic rings contain from 3 to about 9 atoms, preferably from about 4 to about 7 atoms, and most preferably 5 or 6 atoms. Polycyclic rings contain from about 7 to about 17 atoms, preferably from about 7 to about 14 atoms, and most preferably 9 or 10 atoms. Carbocyclic rings (carbocycles) may be substituted or unsubstituted.

[0106] As used herein, the term “purified” means partially purified and/or completely purified. Thus a “purified composition” may be either partially purified or completely purified. The COX 2 inhibitor(s) useful in the inventive method for treating PD can be of any purity and quality that is pharmaceutically acceptable.

[0107] In an embodiment of the present invention, any cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor isomer, ester, salt or prodrugs thereof that meets the criteria described below can be used in the subject inventive method.

[0108] As used herein, the term “cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor”, embraces compounds which selectively inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 over cyclooxygenase-1, and also includes pharmaceutically acceptable salts of those compounds.

[0109] In practice, the selectivity of a COX 2 inhibitor varies depending upon the condition under which the test is performed and on the inhibitors being tested. However, for the purposes of this specification, the selectivity of a COX 2 inhibitor can be measured as a ratio of the in vitro or in vivo IC₅₀ value for inhibition of COX 1, divided by the IC₅, value for inhibition of COX 2 (COX 1 IC₅₀/COX 2 IC₅₀). A COX 2 selective inhibitor is any inhibitor for which the ratio of COX 1 IC₅₀ to COX 2 IC₅₀ is greater than 1, preferably greater than 1.5, more preferably greater than 2, even more preferably greater than 5, yet more preferably greater than 10, still more preferably greater than 50, and more preferably still greater than 100.

[0110] As used herein, the term “IC₅₀” refers to the concentration of a compound that is required to produce 50% inhibition of cyclooxygenase activity.

[0111] Preferred cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitors of the present invention have a cyclooxygenase-2 IC₅₀ of less than about 5 μM, more preferred of less than about 1 μM.

[0112] Preferred cycloxoygenase-2 selective inhibitors have a cyclooxygenase-1 IC₅₀ of greater than about 1 μM, and more preferably of greater than 20 μM. Such preferred selectivity may indicate an ability to reduce the incidence of common NSAID-induced side effects.

[0113] Also included within the scope of the present invention are compounds that act as prodrugs of cyclooxygenase-2-selective inhibitors. As used herein in reference to COX 2 selective inhibitors, the term “prodrug” refers to a chemical compound that is converted into an active COX 2 selective inhibitor by metabolic processes within the body. One example of a prodrug for a COX 2 selective inhibitor is parecoxib, which is a therapeutically effective prodrug of the tricyclic cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor valdecoxib. An example of a preferred COX 2 selective inhibitor prodrug is sodium parecoxib.

[0114] The cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor of the present invention can be, for example, the COX 2 selective inhibitor [2-(2,4-Dichloro-6-ethyl-3,5-dimethyl-phenylamino)-5-propyl-phenyl]-acetic acid, having Formula B-1, or an isomer or pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof.

[0115] In another embodiment of the invention the cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor can be the COX 2 selective inhibitor RS 57067 or 6-[[5-(4-chlorobenzoyl)-1,4-dimethyl-1H-pyrrol-2-yl]methyl]-3(2H)-pyridazinone, having Formula B-2 (CAS registry number 179382-91-3), or an isomer, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, or prodrug thereof.

[0116] In a preferred embodiment of the invention the cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor is of the chromene structural class that is a substituted benzopyran or a substituted benzopyran analog, and even more preferably selected from the group consisting of substituted benzothiopyrans, dihydroquinolines, or dihydronaphthalenes having the structure shown by general Formulas (I)-(V), shown below, and possessing, by way of example and not limitation, the structures disclosed in Table 1, including the diastereomers, enantiomers, racemates, tautomers, salts, esters, amides and prodrugs thereof.

[0117] Furthermore, benzopyran COX 2 selective inhibitors useful in the practice of the present invention are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,034,256 and 6,077,850.

[0118] wherein n is an integer which is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4;

[0119] wherein G is O, S or NR^(a);

[0120] wherein R^(a) is alkyl;

[0121] wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of H and aryl;

[0122] wherein R² is selected from the group consisting of carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarbonyl and alkoxycarbonyl;

[0123] wherein R³ is selected from the group consisting of haloalkyl, alkyl, aralkyl, cycloalkyl, and aryl optionally substituted with one or more radicals selected from alkylthio, nitro and alkylsulfonyl; and

[0124] wherein each R⁴ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo, alkyl, aralkyl, alkoxy, aryloxy, heteroaryloxy, aralkyloxy, heteroaralkyloxy, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, alkylamino, arylamino, aralkylamino, heteroarylamino, heteroarylalkylamino, nitro, amino, aminosulfonyl, alkylaminosulfonyl, arylaminosulfonyl, heteroarylaminosulfonyl, aralkylaminosulfonyl, heteroaralkylaminosulfonyl, heterocyclosulfonyl, alkylsulfonyl, hydroxyarylcarbonyl, nitroaryl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, aralkylcarbonyl, heteroarylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and alkylcarbonyl;

[0125] or wherein R⁴ together with the carbon atoms to which it is attached and the remainder of ring E forms a naphthyl radical; or an isomer or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; and

[0126] including the diastereomers, enantiomers, racemates, tautomers, salts, esters, amides and prodrugs thereof.

[0127] The cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor may also be a compound of Formula (I) wherein:

[0128] n is an integer which is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4;

[0129] wherein:

[0130] G is O,S or NR^(b);

[0131] R¹ is H;

[0132] R^(b) is alkyl;

[0133] R² is selected from the group consisting of carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarbonyl and alkoxycarbonyl;

[0134] R³ is selected from the group consisting of haloalkyl, alkyl, aralkyl, cycloalkyl, and aryl, wherein haloalkyl, alkyl, aralkyl, cycloalkyl, and aryl each is independently optionally substituted with one or more radicals selected from the group consisting of alkylthio, nitro and alkylsulfonyl; and

[0135] each R⁴ is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrido, halo, alkyl, aralkyl, alkoxy, aryloxy, heteroaryloxy, aralkyloxy, heteroaralkyloxy, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, alkylamino, arylamino, aralkylamino, heteroarylamino, heteroarylalkylamino, nitro, amino, aminosulfonyl, alkylaminosulfonyl, arylaminosulfonyl, heteroarylaminosulfonyl, aralkylaminosulfonyl, heteroaralkylaminosulfonyl, heterocyclosulfonyl, alkylsulfonyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, aralkylcarbonyl, heteroarylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and alkylcarbonyl; or wherein R⁴ together with ring E forms a naphthyl radical;

[0136] or an isomer or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

[0137] The cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor may also be a compound of Formula (I), wherein:

[0138] n is an integer which is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4;

[0139] G is oxygen or sulfur;

[0140] R¹ is H;

[0141] R² is carboxyl, lower alkyl, lower aralkyl or lower alkoxycarbonyl;

[0142] R³ is lower haloalkyl, lower cycloalkyl or phenyl; and

[0143] each R⁴ is H, halo, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, lower haloalkyl, lower haloalkoxy, lower alkylamino, nitro, amino, aminosulfonyl, lower alkylaminosulfonyl, 5-membered heteroarylalkylaminosulfonyl, 6-membered heteroarylalkylaminosulfonyl, lower aralkylaminosulfonyl, 5-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclosulfonyl, 6-membered-nitrogen containing heterocyclosulfonyl, lower alkylsulfonyl, optionally substituted phenyl, lower aralkylcarbonyl, or lower alkylcarbonyl; or

[0144] wherein R⁴ together with the carbon atoms to which it is attached and the remainder of ring E forms a naphthyl radical;

[0145] or an isomer or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

[0146] The cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor may also be a compound of Formula (I) wherein:

[0147] R² is carboxyl;

[0148] R³ is lower haloalkyl; and

[0149] each R⁴ is H, halo, lower alkyl, lower haloalkyl, lower haloalkoxy, lower alkylamino, amino, aminosulfonyl, lower alkylaminosulfonyl, 5-membered heteroarylalkylaminosulfonyl, 6-membered heteroarylalkylaminosulfonyl, lower aralkylaminosulfonyl, lower alkylsulfonyl, 6-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclosulfonyl, optionally substituted phenyl, lower aralkylcarbonyl, or lower alkylcarbonyl; or wherein R⁴ together with ring E forms a naphthyl radical;

[0150] or an isomer or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof

[0151] The cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor may also be a compound of Formula (I), wherein:

[0152] n is an integer which is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4;

[0153] R³ is fluoromethyl, chloromethyl, dichloromethyl, trichloromethyl, pentafluoroethyl, heptafluoropropyl, difluoroethyl, difluoropropyl, dichloroethyl, dichloropropyl, difluoromethyl, or trifluoromethyl; and

[0154] each R⁴ is H, chloro, fluoro, bromo, iodo, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, tert-butyl, butyl, isobutyl, pentyl, hexyl, methoxy, ethoxy, isopropyloxy, tertbutyloxy, trifluoromethyl, difluoromethyl, trifluoromethoxy, amino, N,N-dimethylamino, N,N-diethylamino, N-phenylmethylaminosulfonyl, N-phenylethylaminosulfonyl, N-(2-furylmethyl)aminosulfonyl, nitro, N,N-dimethylaminosulfonyl, aminosulfonyl, N-methylaminosulfonyl, N-ethylsulfonyl, 2,2-dimethylethylaminosulfonyl, N,N-dimethylaminosulfonyl, N-(2-methylpropyl)aminosulfonyl, N-morpholinosulfonyl, methylsulfonyl, benzylcarbonyl, 2,2-dimethylpropylcarbonyl, phenylacetyl or phenyl; or wherein R⁴ together with the carbon atoms to which it is attached and the remainder of ring E forms a naphthyl radical;

[0155] or an isomer or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

[0156] The cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor may also be a compound of Formula (I), wherein:

[0157] n is an integer which is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4;

[0158] R³ is trifluoromethyl or pentafluoroethyl; and

[0159] each R⁴ is independently H, chloro, fluoro, bromo, iodo, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, tert-butyl, methoxy, trifluoromethyl, trifluorometboxy, N-phenylmethylaminosulfonyl, N-phenylethylaminosulfonyl, N-(2-furylmethyl)aminosulfonyl, N,N-dimethylaminosulfonyl, N-methylaminosulfonyl, N-(2,2-dimethylethyl)aminosulfonyl, dimethylaminosulfonyl, 2-methylpropylaminosulfonyl, N-morpholinosulfonyl, methylsulfonyl, benzylcarbonyl, or phenyl; or wherein R⁴ together with the carbon atoms to which it is attached and the remainder of ring E forms a naphthyl radical;

[0160] or an isomer or a prodrug thereof.

[0161] The cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor used in connection with the method(s) of the present invention can also be a compound having the structure of Formula (I):

[0162] wherein:

[0163] n=4;

[0164] G is O or S;

[0165] R¹ is H;

[0166] R² is CO₂H;

[0167] R³ is lower haloalkyl;

[0168] a first R⁴ corresponding to R⁹ is hydrido or halo;

[0169] a second R⁴ corresponding to R¹⁰ is H, halo, lower alkyl, lower haloalkoxy, lower alkoxy, lower aralkylcarbonyl, lower dialkylaminosulfonyl, lower alkylaminosulfonyl, lower aralkylaminosulfonyl, lower heteroaralkylaminosulfonyl, 5-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclosulfonyl, or 6-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclosulfonyl;

[0170] a third R⁴ corresponding to R¹¹ is H, lower alkyl, halo, lower alkoxy, or aryl; and

[0171] a fourth R⁴ corresponding to R¹² is H, halo, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, and aryl;

[0172] wherein Formula (I) is represented by Formula (Ia):

[0173] or an isomer or prodrug thereof.

[0174] The cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor used in connection with the method(s) of the present invention can also be a compound of having the structure of Formula (Ia), wherein:

[0175] R⁸ is trifluoromethyl or pentafluoroethyl;

[0176] R⁹is H, chloro, or fluoro;

[0177] R¹⁰ is H, chloro, bromo, fluoro, iodo, methyl, tert-butyl, trifluoromethoxy, methoxy, benzylcarbonyl, dimethylaminosulfonyl, isopropylaminosulfonyl, methylaminosulfonyl, benzylaminosulfonyl, phenylethylaminosulfonyl, methylpropylaminosulfonyl, methylsulfonyl, or morpholinosulfonyl;

[0178] R¹¹ is H, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, tert-butyl, chloro, methoxy, diethylamino; or phenyl; and

[0179] R¹² is H, chloro, bromo, fluoro, methyl, ethyl, tert-butyl, methoxy, or phenyl;

[0180] or an isomer or prodrug thereof.

[0181] The present invention is also directed to a novel method for the treatment of PD comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor comprising BMS-347070 (B-74), ABT 963 (B-25), NS-398 (B-26), L-745337 (B-214), RWJ-63556 (B-215), or L-784512 (B-216).

[0182] Of the COX 2 inhibitors listed in Table 1A, those listed in Table 1B are chromene COX 2 inhibitors as indicated below: TABLE 1B Examples of Chromene COX 2 Selective Inhibitors No. Structure (chromene COX 2 Inhibitor) B-3

B-4

B-5

B-6

B-7

B-8

B-9

B-10

B-11

B-12

B-13

B-14

B-15

B-16

B-17

[0183] In a further preferred embodiment of the invention the cyclooxygenase inhibitor can be selected from the class of tricyclic cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitors represented by the general structure of Formula (II):

[0184] wherein:

[0185] D is selected from the group consisting of an unsaturated, a partially unsaturated, and a saturated hetercyclyl ring, and an unsaturated, partially unsaturated, and saturated carbocyclic ring, provided that Formula (II) is not celecoxib (B18) or refecoxib (B-21);

[0186] R¹³ is selected from the group consisting of heterocyclyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl and aryl, wherein R¹³ is optionally substituted at a substitutable position with one or more radicals selected from alkyl, haloalkyl, cyano, carboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, hydroxyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkoxy, amino, alkylamino, arylamino, nitro, alkoxyalkyl, alkylsulfinyl, halo, alkoxy and alkylthio;

[0187] R¹⁴ is selected from the group consisting of methyl or amino; and

[0188] R¹⁵ is selected from the group consisting of a radical selected from H, halo, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, oxo, cyano, carboxyl, cyanoalkyl, heterocyclyloxy, alkyloxy, alkylthio, alkylcarbonyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloalkyl, heterocyclyl, cycloalkenyl, aralkyl, heterocyclylalkyl, acyl, alkylthioalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, alkoxycarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, aralkylcarbonyl, aralkenyl, alkoxyalkyl, arylthioalkyl, aryloxyalkyl, aralkylthioalkyl, aralkoxyalkyl, alkoxyaralkoxyalkyl, alkoxycarbonylalkyl, aminocarbonyl, aminocarbonylalkyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, N- arylaminocarbonyl, N-alkyl-N-arylaminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonylalkyl, carboxyalkyl, alkylamino, N-arylamino, N-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-N-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-N-arylamino, aminoalkyl, alkylaminoalkyl, N-arylaminoalkyl, N-aralkylaminoalkyl, N-alkyl-N-aralkylaminoalkyl, N-alkyl-N-arylaminoalkyl, aryloxy, aralkoxy, arylthio, aralkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, aminosulfonyl, alkylaminosulfonyl, N-arylaminosulfonyl, arylsulfonyl, N-alkyl-N-arylaminosulfonyl;

[0189] or a prodrug thereof.

[0190] In a still more preferred embodiment of the invention, the tricyclic cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor(s) for use in connection with the method(s) of the present invention are represented by the above Formula (II) and are selected from the group of compounds, illustrated in Table 2, consisting of celecoxib (B-18), valdecoxib (B-19), deracoxib (B-20), rofecoxib (B-21), etoricoxib (MK-663; B-22), JTE-522 (B-23), or a prodrug thereof. TABLE 2 Examples of Tricyclic COX 2 Selective Inhibitors No. Structure (Tricyclic COX 2 Inhibitors) B-18

B-19

B-20

B-21

B-22

B-23

[0191] In an even more preferred embodiment of the invention, the COX 2 selective inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of celecoxib, rofecoxib and etoricoxib.

[0192] In another preferred embodiment of the invention, parecoxib, (B-24), which is a therapeutically effective prodrug of the tricyclic cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor valdecoxib, (B-19), may be advantageously employed as a source of a cyclooxygenase inhibitor (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,932,598) in connection with the method(s) in the present invention.

[0193] A preferred form of parecoxib is sodium parecoxib.

[0194] In another preferred embodiment of the invention, the compound ABT-963 having the formula (B-25) that has been previously described in International Publication number WO 00/24719, is another tricyclic cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor which may be advantageously employed. in connection with the method(s) of the present invention.

[0195] Another preferred cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor that is useful in connection with the method(s) of the present invention is N-(2-cyclohexyloxynitrophenyl)-methane sulfonamide (NS-398)—having a structure shown below as B-26. Applications of this compound have been described by, for example, Yoshimi, N. et al., in Japanese J. Cancer Res., 90(4):406-412 (1999); Falgueyret, J.-P. et al., in Science Spectra, available at: http://www.gbhap.com/Science Spectra/20-1-article.htm (Jun. 6, 2001); and Iwata, K. et al., in Jpn. J. Pharmacol., 75(2):191-194 (1997).

[0196] Other compounds that are useful for the cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor in connection with the method(s) of the present invention include, but are not limited to:

[0197] 6-chloro-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-27);

[0198] 6-chloro-7-methyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-28);

[0199] 8-(1-methylethyl)-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-29);

[0200] 6-chloro-8-(1 -methylethyl)-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-30);

[0201] 2-trifluoromethyl-3H-naphtho[2,1-b]pyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-31);

[0202] 7-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-32);

[0203] 6-bromo-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-33);

[0204] 8-chloro-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-34);

[0205] 6-trifluoromethoxy-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-35);

[0206] 5,7-dichloro-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-36);

[0207] 8-phenyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-37);

[0208] 7,8-dimethyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-38);

[0209] 6,8-bis(dimethylethyl)-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-39);

[0210] 7-(1-methylethyl)-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-40);

[0211] 7-phenyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-41);

[0212] 6-chloro-7-ethyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-42);

[0213] 6-chloro-8-ethyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-43);

[0214] 6-chloro-7-phenyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-44);

[0215] 6,7-dichloro-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-45);

[0216] 6,8-dichloro-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-46);

[0217] 6-chloro-8-methyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-47);

[0218] 8-chloro-6-methyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-48)

[0219] 8-chloro-6-methoxy-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-49);

[0220] 6-bromo-8-chloro-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-50);

[0221] 8-bromo-6-fluoro-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-51);

[0222] 8-bromo-6-methyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-52);

[0223] 8-bromo-5-fluoro-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-53);

[0224] 6-chloro-8-fluoro-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-54);

[0225] 6-bromo-8-methoxy-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-55);

[0226] 6-[[(phenylmethyl)amino]sulfonyl]-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-56);

[0227] 6-[(dimethylamino)sulfonyl]-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-57);

[0228] 6-[(methylamino)sulfonyl]-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-58);

[0229] 6-[(4-morpholino)sulfonyl]-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-59);

[0230] 6-[(1,1-dimethylethyl)aminosulfonyl]-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-60);

[0231] 6-[(2-methylpropyl)aminosulfonyl]-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-61);

[0232] 6-methylsulfonyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-62);

[0233] 8-chloro-6-[[(phenylmethyl)amino]sulfonyl]-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-63);

[0234] 6-phenylacetyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-64);

[0235] 6,8-dibromo-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-65);

[0236] 8-chloro-5,6-dimethyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-66);

[0237] 6,8-dichloro-(S)-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-67);

[0238] 6-benzylsulfonyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-68);

[0239] 6-[[N-(2-furylmethyl)amino]sulfonyl]-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-69);

[0240] 6-[[N-(2-phenylethyl)amino]sulfonyl]-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-70);

[0241] 6-iodo-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-71);

[0242] 7-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-2-pentafluoroethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-72);

[0243] 6-chloro-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzothiopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-73);

[0244] 3-[(3-Chloro-phenyl)-(4-methanesulfonyl-phenyl)-methylene]-dihydro-furan-2-one or BMS-347070 (B-74);

[0245] 8-acetyl-3-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-(4-methylsulfonyl)phenyl-imidazo(1,2-a)pyridine (B-75);

[0246] 5,5-dimethyl-4-(4-methylsulfonyl)phenyl-3-phenyl-2-(5H)-furanone (B-76);

[0247] 5-(4-fluorophenyl)-1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyrazole (B-77);

[0248] 4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-1-phenyl-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyrazole (B-78);

[0249] 4-(5-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)benzenesulfonamide (B-79);

[0250] 4-(3,5-bis(4-methylphenyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)benzenesulfonamide (B-80);

[0251] 4-(5-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-phenyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)benzenesulfonamide (B-81);

[0252] 4-(3,5-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)benzenesulfonamide (B-82);

[0253] 4-(5-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(4-methylphenyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)benzenesulfonamide (B-83);

[0254] 4-(5-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(4-nitrophenyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)benzenesulfonamide (B-84);

[0255] 4-(5-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(5-chloro-2-thienyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)benzenesulfonamide (B-85);

[0256] 4-(4-chloro-3,5-diphenyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)benzenesulfonamide (B-86);

[0257] 4-[5-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-87);

[0258] 4-[5-phenyl-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-88);

[0259] 4-[5-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-89);

[0260] 4-[5-(4-methoxyphenyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-90);

[0261] 4-[5-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(difluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-91);

[0262] 4-[5-(4-methylphenyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-92);

[0263] 4-[4-chloro-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-93);

[0264] 4-[3-(difluoromethyl)-5-(4-methylphenyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-94);

[0265] 4-[3-(difluoromethyl)-5-phenyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-95);

[0266] 4-[3-(difluoromethyl)-5-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-96);

[0267] 4-[3-cyano-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-97);

[0268] 4-[3-(difluoromethyl)-5-(3-fluoro-4-methoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-98);

[0269] 4-[5-(3-fluoro-4-methoxyphenyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-99);

[0270] 4-[4-chloro-5-phenyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-100);

[0271] 4-[5-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(hydroxymethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-101);

[0272] 4-[5-(4-(N,N-dimethylamino)phenyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-102);

[0273] 5-(4-fluorophenyl)-6-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]spiro[2.4]hept-5-ene (B-103);

[0274] 4-[6-(4-fluorophenyl)spiro[2.4]hept-5-en-5-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-104);

[0275] 6-(4-fluorophenyl)-7-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]spiro[3.4]oct-6-ene (B-105);

[0276] 5-(3-chloro-4-methoxyphenyl)-6-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]spiro[2.4]hept-5-ene (B-106);

[0277] 4-[6-(3-chloro-4-methoxyphenyl)spiro[2.4]hept-5-en-5-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-107);

[0278] 5-(3,5-dichloro-4-methoxyphenyl)-6-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]spiro[2.4]hept-5-ene (B-108);

[0279] 5-(3-chloro-4-fluorophenyl)-6-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]spiro[2.4]hept-5-ene (B-109);

[0280] 4-[6-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)spiro[2.4]hept-5-en-5-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-110);

[0281] 2-(3-chloro-4-fluorophenyl)-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-(4-methylsulfonylphenyl)thiazole (B-111);

[0282] 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-(4-methylsulfonylphenyl)thiazole (B-112);

[0283] 5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-(4-methylsulfonylphenyl)-2-methylthiazole (B-113);

[0284] 4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-(4-methylsulfonylphenyl)-2-trifluoromethylthiazole (B-114);

[0285] 4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-(4-methylsulfonylphenyl)-2-(2-thienyl)thiazole (B-115);

[0286] 4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-(4-methylsulfonylphenyl)-2-benzylaminothiazole (B-116);

[0287] 4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-(4-methylsulfonylphenyl)-2-(1-propylamino)thiazole (B-117);

[0288] 2-[(3,5-dichlorophenoxy)methyl)-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]thiazole (B-118);

[0289] 5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-(4-methylsulfonylphenyl)-2-trifluoromethylthiazole (B-119);

[0290] 1-methylsulfonyl-4-[1,1-dimethyl-4-(4-fluorophenyl)cyclopenta-2,4-dien-3-yl]benzene (B-120);

[0291] 4-[4-(4-fluorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylcyclopenta-2,4-dien-3-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-121);

[0292] 5-(4-fluorophenyl)-6-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]spiro[2.4]hepta-4,6-diene (B-122);

[0293] 4-[6-(4-fluorophenyl)spiro[2.4]hepta-4,6-dien-5-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-123);

[0294] 6-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-methoxy-5-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-pyridine-3-carbonitrile (B-124);

[0295] 2-bromo-6-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-pyridine-3-carbonitrile (B-125);

[0296] 6-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-2-phenyl-pyridine-3-carbonitrile (B-126);

[0297] 4-[2-(4-methylpyridin-2-yl)-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-127);

[0298] 4-[2-(5-methylpyridin-3-yl)-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-128);

[0299] 4-[2-(2-methylpyridin-3-yl)-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-129);

[0300] 3-[1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]pyridine (B-130);

[0301] 2-[1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]pyridine (B-131);

[0302] 2-methyl-4-[1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]pyridine (B-132);

[0303] 2-methyl-6-[1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]pyridine (B-133);

[0304] 4-[2-(6-methylpyridin-3-yl)-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-134);

[0305] 2-(3,4-difluorophenyl)-1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazole (B-135);

[0306] 4-[2-(4-methylphenyl)-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-136);

[0307] 2-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-4-methyl-1H-imidazole (B-137);

[0308] 2-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-4-phenyl-1H-imidazole (B-138);

[0309] 2-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-1H-imidazole (B-139);

[0310] 2-(3-fluoro-4-methoxyphenyl)-1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazole (B-140);

[0311] 1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-2-phenyl-4-trifluoromethyl-1H-imidazole (B-141);

[0312] 2-(4-methylphenyl)-1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-4-trifluoromethyl-1H-imidazole (B-142);

[0313] 4-[2-(3-chloro-4-methylphenyl)-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-143);

[0314] 2-(3-fluoro-5-methylphenyl)-1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazole (B-144);

[0315] 4-[2-(3-fluoro-5-methylphenyl)-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-145);

[0316] 2-(3-methylphenyl)-1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-4-trifluoromethyl-1H-imidazole (B-146);

[0317] 4-[2-(3-methylphenyl)-4-trifluoromethyl-1H-imidazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-147);

[0318] 1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-2-(3-chlorophenyl)-4-trifluoromethyl-1H-imidazole (B-148);

[0319] 4-[2-(3-chlorophenyl)-4-trifluoromethyl-1H-imidazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-149);

[0320] 4-[2-phenyl-4-trifluoromethyl-1H-imidazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-150);

[0321] 4-[2-(4-methoxy-3-chlorophenyl)-4-trifluoromethyl-1H-imidazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-151);

[0322] 1-allyl-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-5-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazole (B-152);

[0323] 4-[1-ethyl-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-3-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-153);

[0324] N-phenyl-[4-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-5-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]acetamide (B-154);

[0325] ethyl [4-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-5-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]acetate (B-155);

[0326] 4-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-1-(2-phenylethyl)-1H-pyrazole (B-156);

[0327] 4-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-1-(2-phenylethyl)-5-(trifluoromethyl)pyrazole (B-157);

[0328] 1-ethyl-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-5-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazole (B-158);

[0329] 5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-(4-methylsulfonylphenyl)-2-trifluoromethyl-1H-imidazole (B-159);

[0330] 4-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-5-(2-thiophenyl)-2-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazole (B-160);

[0331] 5-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-methoxy-4-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-6-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine (B-161);

[0332] 2-ethoxy-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-6-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine (B-162);

[0333] 5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-2-(2-propynyloxy)-6-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine (B-163);

[0334] 2-bromo-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-6-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine (B-164);

[0335] 4-[2-(3-chloro-4-methoxyphenyl)-4,5-difluorophenyl]benzenesulfonamide (B-165);

[0336] 1-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]benzene (B-166);

[0337] 5-difluoromethyl-4-(4-methylsulfonylphenyl)-3-phenylisoxazole (B-167);

[0338] 4-[3-ethyl-5-phenylisoxazol-4-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-168);

[0339] 4-[5-difluoromethyl-3-phenylisoxazol-4-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-169);

[0340] 4-[5-hydroxymethyl-3-phenylisoxazol-4-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-170);

[0341] 4-[5-methyl-3-phenyl-isoxazol-4-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-171);

[0342] 1-[2-(4-fluorophenyl)cyclopenten-1-yl]-4-(methylsulfonyl)benzene (B-172);

[0343] 1-[2-(4-fluoro-2-methylphenyl)cyclopenten-1-yl]-4-(methylsulfonyl)benzene (B-173);

[0344] 1-[2-(4-chlorophenyl)cyclopenten-1-yl]-4-(methylsulfonyl)benzene (B-174);

[0345] 1-[2-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)cyclopenten-1-yl]-4-(methylsulfonyl)benzene (B-175);

[0346] 1-[2-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)cyclopenten-1-yl]-4-(methylsulfonyl)benzene (B-176);

[0347] 1-[2-(4-methylthiophenyl)cyclopenten-1-yl]-4-(methylsulfonyl)benzene (B-177);

[0348] 1-[2-(4-fluorophenyl)-4,4-dimethylcyclopenten-1-yl]-4-(methylsulfonyl)benzene (B-178);

[0349] 4-[2-(4-fluorophenyl)-4,4-dimethylcyclopenten-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-179);

[0350] 1-[2-(4-chlorophenyl)-4,4-dimethylcyclopenten-1-yl]-4-(methylsulfonyl)benzene (B-180);

[0351] 4-[2-(4-chlorophenyl)-4,4-dimethylcyclopenten-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-181);

[0352] 4-[2-(4-fluorophenyl)cyclopenten-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-182);

[0353] 4-[2-(4-chlorophenyl)cyclopenten-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-183);

[0354] 1-[2-(4-methoxyphenyl)cyclopenten-1-yl]-4-(methylsulfonyl)benzene (B-184);

[0355] 1-[2-(2,3-difluorophenyl)cyclopenten-1-yl]-4-(methylsulfonyl)benzene (B-185);

[0356] 4-[2-(3-fluoro-4-methoxyphenyl)cyclopenten-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-186);

[0357] 1-[2-(3-chloro-4-methoxyphenyl)cyclopenten-1-yl]-4-(methylsulfonyl)benzene (B-187);

[0358] 4-[2-(3-chloro-4-fluorophenyl)cyclopenten-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-188);

[0359] 4-[2-(2-metbylpyridin-5-yl)cyclopenten-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-189); ethyl 2-[4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-[4-(methylsulfonyl) phenyl]oxazol-2-yl]-2-benzyl-acetate (B-190);

[0360] 2-[4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]oxazol-2-yl]acetic acid (B-191);

[0361] 2-(tert-butyl)-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]oxazole (B-192);

[0362] 4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-2-phenyloxazole (B-193);

[0363] 4-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-methyl-5-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]oxazole (B-194);

[0364] 4-[5-(3-fluoro-4-methoxyphenyl)-2-trifluoromethyl-4-oxazolyl]benzenesulfonamide (B-195);

[0365] 6-chloro-7-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-196);

[0366] 6-chloro-8-methyl-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-197);

[0367] 5,5-dimethyl-3-(3-fluorophenyl)-4-methylsulfonyl-2(5H)-furanone (B-198);

[0368] 6-chloro-2-trifluoromethyl-2H-1-benzothiopyran-3-carboxylic acid (B-199);

[0369] 4-[5-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-200);

[0370] 4-[5-(4-methylphenyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-201);

[0371] 4-[5-(3-fluoro-4methoxyphenyl)-3-(difluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-202);

[0372] 3-[1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-4-trifluoromethyl-1H-imidazol-2-yl]pyridine (B-203);

[0373] 2-methyl-5-[1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-4-trifluoromethyl-1H-imidazol-2-yl]pyridine (B-204);

[0374] 4-[2-(5-methylpyridin-3-yl)-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazol-1-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-205);

[0375] 4-[5-methyl-3-phenylisoxazol-4-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-206);

[0376] 4-[5-hydroxymethyl-3-phenylisoxazol-4-yl]benzenesulfonamide (B-207);

[0377] [2-trifluoromethyl-5-(3,4-difluorophenyl)-4-oxazolyl]benzenesulfonamide (B-208);

[0378] 4-[2-methyl-4-phenyl-5-oxazolyl]benzenesulfonamide (B-209);

[0379] 4-[5-(2-fluoro-4-methoxyphenyl)-2-trifluoromethyl-4-oxazolyl]benzenesulfonamide (B-210);

[0380] [2-(2,4-dichloro-6-methyl-phenylamino)-5-ethyl-phenyl]-acetic acid or COX 189 (B-211);

[0381] N-(4-Nitro-2-phenoxy-phenyl)-methanesulfonamide or nimesulide (B-212);

[0382] N-[6-(2,4-difluoro-phenoxy)-1-oxo-indan-5-yl]-methanesulfonamide or flosulide (B-213);

[0383] N-[6-(2,4-Difluoro-phenylsulfanyl)-1-oxo-1H-inden-5-yl]-methanesulfonamide, soldium salt or L-745337 (B-214);

[0384] N-[5-(4-fluoro-phenylsulfanyl)-thiophen-2-yl]-methanesulfonamide or RWJ-63556 (B-215);

[0385] 3-(3,4-Difluoro-phenoxy)-4-(4-methanesulfonyl-phenyl)-5-methyl-5-(2,2,2-trifluoro-ethyl)-5H-furan-2-one or L-784512 or L-784512 (B-216);

[0386] (5Z)-2-amino-5-[[3,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-hydroxyphenyl]methylene]-4(5H)-thiazolone or darbufelone (B-217);

[0387] CS-502 (B-218);

[0388] LAS-34475 (B-219);

[0389] LAS-34555 (B-220);

[0390] S-33516 (B-221);

[0391] SD-8381 (B-222);

[0392] L-783003 (B-223);

[0393] N-[3-(formylamino)-4-oxo-6-phenoxy-4H-1-benzopyran-7-yl]-methanesulfonamide or T-614 (B-224);

[0394] D-1367 (B-225);

[0395] L-748731 (B-226);

[0396] (6aR, 10aR)-3-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)-6a,7, 10, 10a-tetrahydro-1-hydroxy-6,6-dimethyl-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-9-carboxylic acid or CT3 (B-227);

[0397] CGP-28238 (B-228);

[0398] 4-[[3,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-hydroxyphenyl]methylene]dihydro-2-methyl-2H-1,2-oxazin-3(4H)-one or BF-389 (B-229);

[0399] GR-253035 (B-230);

[0400] 6-dioxo-9H-purin-8-yl-cinnamic acid (B-231); or S-2474 (B-232);

[0401] or an isomer, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester or prodrug thereof, respectively.

[0402] Certain subgroups of the above-noted COX 2 inhibitors may be preferred for the treatment of PD which include, but are not limited to, B-1 to B-5, B-6 to B-10, B-11 to B-15, B-16 to B-20, B-21 to B-25, B-26 to B-30, B-31 to B-35, B-36-B-40, B-41 to B-45, B-46 to B-50, B-51 to B-55, B-56 to B-60, B-61 to B-65, B-66 to B-70, B-71 to B-75, B-76 to B-80, B-81 to B-85, BB-86 to B-90, B-91 to B-95, B-96 to B-100, B-101 to B-105, B-106 to B-110, B-111 to B-115, B-116 to B-120, B-121 to B-125, B-126 to B-130, B-131 to B-135, B-136 to B-140, B-141 to B-145, B-146 to B-150, B-151 to B-155, B-156 to B-160, B-161 to B-165, B-166 to B-170, B-171 to B-175, B-176 to B-180, B-181 to B-185, B-186 to B-190, B-191 to B-195, B-196 to B-200, B-201 to B-205, B-206 to B-210, B-211 to B-215, B-216 to B-220, B-221 to B-225, B-226 to B-230, B-231-B-232 or combinations thereof.

[0403] In a further preferred embodiment of the invention, the cyclooxygenase inhibitor used in connection with the method(s) of the present invention can be selected from the class of phenylacetic acid derivative cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitors represented by the general structure of Formula (III):

[0404] wherein

[0405] R¹⁶ is methyl or ethyl;

[0406] R¹⁷ is chloro or fluoro;

[0407] R¹⁸ is hydrogen or fluoro;

[0408] R¹⁹ is hydrogen, fluoro, chloro, methyl, ethyl, methoxy, ethoxy or hydroxy;

[0409] R²⁰ is hydrogen or fluoro; and

[0410] R²¹ is chloro, fluoro, trifluoromethyl or methyl, provided that R¹⁷, R¹⁸, R¹⁹ and R²⁰ are not all fluoro when R¹⁶ is ethyl and R¹⁹ is H.

[0411] A particularly preferred phenylacetic acid derivative cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor used in connection with the method(s) of the present invention is a compound that has the designation of COX 189 (B-211) and that has the structure shown in Formula (III), wherein:

[0412] R¹⁶ is ethyl;

[0413] R¹⁷ and R¹⁹ are chloro;

[0414] R¹⁸ and R²⁰ are hydrogen; and

[0415] and R²¹ is methyl.

[0416] The cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitors described above may be referred to herein collectively as COX 2 selective inhibitors, or cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitors.

[0417] Cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitors that are useful in the present invention can be supplied by any source as long as the cyclooxygenase-2-selective inhibitor is pharmaceutically acceptable. Cyclooxygenase-2-selective inhibitors can be isolated and purified from natural sources or can be synthesized. Cyclooxygenase-2-selective inhibitors should be of a quality and purity that is conventional in the trade for use in pharmaceutical products.

[0418] In the present method, a subject in need of treatment of PD is treated with an amount of at least one COX 2 selective inhibitor, where the amount of the COX 2 selective inhibitor is sufficient to constitute a PD treatment effective amount of a therapeutically effective amount.

[0419] As used herein, an “effective amount” means the dose or effective amount to be administered to a patient and the frequency of administration to the subject which is sufficient to obtain a therapeutic effect as readily determined by one or ordinary skill in the art, by the use of known techniques and by observing results obtained under analogous circumstances. The dose or effective amount to be administered to a patient and the frequency of administration to the subject can be readily determined by one of ordinary skill in the art by the use of known techniques and by observing results obtained under analogous circumstances. In determining the effective amount or dose, a number of factors are considered by the attending diagnostician, including but not limited to, the potency and duration of action of the compounds used; the nature and severity of the illness to be treated as well as on the sex, age, weight, general health and individual responsiveness of the patient to be treated, and other relevant circumstances.

[0420] The phrase “therapeutically-effective” indicates the capability of an agent to prevent, or improve the severity of, the disorder or its undesirable symptoms, while avoiding adverse side effects typically associated with alternative therapies.

[0421] Those skilled in the art will appreciate that dosages may also be determined with guidance from Goodman & Goldman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, Ninth Edition (1996), Appendix II, pp. 1707-1711 and from Goodman & Goldman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, Tenth Edition (2001), Appendix II, pp. 475-493.

[0422] The amount of COX 2 selective inhibitor that is used in the subject method may be an amount that, is sufficient to constitute a PD treatment or prevention effective amount. In the present method, the amount of COX 2 selective inhibitor that is used in the novel method of treatment preferably ranges from about 0.001 to about 100 milligrams per day per kilogram of body weight of the subject (mg/day·kg), more preferably from about 0.05 to about 50 mg/day·kg, even more preferably from about 1 to about 20 mg/day·kg.

[0423] When the COX 2 selective inhibitor comprises rofecoxib, it is preferred that the amount used is within a range of from about 0.15 to about 1.0 mg/day·kg, and even more preferably from about 0.18 to about 0.4 mg/day·kg.

[0424] When the COX 2 selective inhibitor comprises etoricoxib, it is preferred that the amount used is within a range of from about 0.5 to about 5 mg/day·kg, and even more preferably from about 0.8 to about 4 mg/day·kg.

[0425] When the COX 2 selective inhibitor comprises celecoxib, it is preferred that the amount used is within a range of from about 1 to about 20 mg/day·kg, even more preferably from about 1.4 to about 8.6 mg/day·kg, and yet more preferably from about 2 to about 3 mg/day·kg.

[0426] When the COX 2 selective inhibitor comprises valdecoxib, it is preferred that the amount used is within a range of from about 0.1 to about 5 mg/day·kg, and even more preferably from about 0.8 to about 4 mg/day·kg.

[0427] When the COX 2 selective inhibitor comprises parecoxib, it is preferred that the amount used is within a range of from about 0.1 to about 5 mg/day·kg, and even more preferably from about 1 to about 3 mg/day·kg.

[0428] In terms of absolute daily dosages, when the COX 2 selective inhibitor comprises rofecoxib, it is preferred that the amount used is from about 10 to about 75 mg/day, more preferably from about 12.5 to about 50 mg/day. When the COX 2 selective inhibitor comprises etoricoxib, it is preferred that the amount used is from about 50 to about 100 mg/day, more preferably from about 60 to about 90 mg/day. When the COX 2 selective inhibitor comprises celecoxib, it is preferred that the amount used is from about 100 to about 1000 mg/day, more preferably from about 200 to about 800 mg/day. When the COX 2 selective inhibitor comprises valdecoxib, it is preferred that the amount used is from about 5 to about 100 mg/day, more preferably from about 10 to about 60 mg/day. When the COX 2 selective inhibitor comprises parecoxib, it is preferred that the amount used is within a range of from about 10 to about 100 mg/day, more preferably from about 20 to about 80 mg/day.

[0429] The COX 2 selective inhibitor(s) that are described above can be provided in a therapeutic composition so that the preferred amounts thereof is/are supplied by a single dosage, a single capsule for example, or, by up to four, or more, single dosage forms.

[0430] The term “pharmacologically effective amount” shall mean that amount of a drug or pharmaceutical agent that will elicit the biological or medical response of a tissue, system, animal or human that is being sought by a researcher or clinician. This amount can be a therapeutically effective amount.

[0431] The term “pharmaceutically acceptable” is used herein to mean that the modified noun is appropriate for use in a pharmaceutical product. Pharmaceutically acceptable cations include metallic ions and organic ions. More preferred metallic ions include, but are not limited to, appropriate alkali metal salts, alkaline earth metal salts and other physiological acceptable metal ions. Exemplary ions include aluminum, calcium, lithium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and zinc in their usual valences. Preferred organic ions include protonated tertiary amines and quaternary ammonium cations, including in part, trimethylamine, diethylamine, N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, chloroprocaine, choline, diethanolamine, ethylenediamine, meglumine (N-methylglucamine) and procaine. Exemplary pharmaceutically acceptable acids include, without limitation, hydrochloric acid, hydroiodic acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, methanesulfonic acid, acetic acid, formic acid, tartaric acid, maleic acid, malic acid, citric acid, isocitric acid, succinic acid, lactic acid, gluconic acid, glucuronic acid, pyruvic acid oxalacetic acid, fumaric acid, propionic acid, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, benzoic acid, and the like.

[0432] Also included in connection with use of the method(s) of the present invention are the isomeric forms and tautomers and the pharmaceutically-acceptable salts of the cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitors. Illustrative pharmaceutically acceptable salts are prepared from formic, acetic, propionic, succinic, glycolic, gluconic, lactic, malic, tartaric, citric, ascorbic, glucuronic, maleic, fumaric, pyruvic, aspartic, glutamic, benzoic, anthranilic, mesylic, stearic, salicylic, p-hydroxybenzoic, phenylacetic, mandelic, embonic (pamoic), methanesulfonic, ethanesulfonic, benzenesulfonic, pantothenic, toluenesulfonic, 2-hydroxyethanesulfonic, sulfanilic, cyclohexylaminosulfonic, algenic, β-hydroxybutyric, galactaric and galacturonic acids.

[0433] Suitable pharmaceutically-acceptable base addition salts of compounds used in connection with the method(s) of the present invention include metallic ion salts and organic ion salts. More preferred metallic ion salts include, but are not limited to, appropriate alkali metal (group Ia) salts, alkaline earth metal (group IIa) salts and other physiological acceptable metal ions. Such salts can be made from the ions of aluminum, calcium, lithium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and zinc. Preferred organic salts can be made from tertiary amines and quaternary ammonium salts, including in part, trimethylamine, diethylamine, N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, chloroprocaine, choline, diethanolamine, ethylenediamine, meglumine (N-methylglucamine) and procaine. All of the above salts can be prepared by those skilled in the art by conventional means from the corresponding compound of the present invention.

[0434] The method of the present invention is useful for, but not limited to, the prevention, inhibition, and/or treatment of PD.

[0435] As used herein, the terms “PD” and “cyclooxygenase-2 mediated disorder” are meant to include, without limitation, each of the symptoms or diseases that is mentioned in this application.

[0436] The present method includes the treatment, inhibition and/or prevention of a cyclooxygenase-2 mediated disorder in a subject, where the method comprises treating the subject having or susceptible to the disorder with a therapeutically-effective amount of the cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor(s) that is/are described in this specification. This method is useful where the cyclooxygenase-2 mediated disorder is PD.

[0437] The terms “treating” or “to treat” means to alleviate symptoms, eliminate the causation either on a temporary or permanent basis, or to prevent or slow the appearance of symptoms. The term “treatment” includes alleviation, elimination of causation of or prevention of undesirable symptoms associated with PD. Besides being useful for human treatment, these combinations are also useful for treatment of mammals, including horses, dogs, cats, rats, mice, sheep, pigs, etc.

[0438] The term “subject” for purposes of treatment includes any human or animal subject who is in need of the prevention of, or who has pain, inflammation and/or any one of the known inflammation-associated disorders. The subject is typically a human subject.

[0439] For methods of prevention, the subject is any human or animal subject, and preferably is a subject that is in need of prevention and/or treatment of PD. The subject may be a human subject who is at risk for PD. The subject may be at risk for PD due to genetic predisposition, lifestyle, diet, exposure to disorder-causing agents, exposure to pathogenic agents and the like.

[0440] In connection with the inventive method, the COX 2 pharmaceutical composition(s) may be administered enterally and parenterally. Parenteral administration includes subcutaneous, intramuscular, intradermal, intramammary, intravenous, and other administrative methods known in the art. Enteral administration includes solution, tablets, sustained release capsules, enteric coated capsules, and syrups. When administered, the pharmaceutical composition may be at or near body temperature.

[0441] The phrase “administration” in defining the use of a cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor agent is intended to embrace administration of each agent in a manner in a regimen that will provide beneficial effects of the drug combination therapy, and is intended as well to embrace co-administration of 2 or more of these COX 2 agents in a substantially simultaneous manner, such as in a single capsule or dosage device having a fixed ratio of these active agents or in multiple, separate capsules or dosage devices for each agent, where the separate capsules or dosage devices can be taken together contemporaneously, or taken within a period of time sufficient to receive a beneficial effect from the constituent COX 2 agent of the combination.

[0442] The phrases “therapeutically-effective” and “effective for the treatment, prevention, or inhibition”, are intended to qualify the amount of each COX 2 agent for use in the COX 2 therapy which will achieve the goal of improvement in the severity and frequency of incidence of PD associated symptoms, while avoiding adverse side effects typically associated with alternative therapies.

[0443] In particular, the pharmaceutical composition of one or more COX 2 inhibitors in connection with the method(s) of the present invention can be administered orally, for example, as tablets, coated tablets, dragees, troches, lozenges, gums, aqueous or oily suspensions, dispersible powders or granules, emulsions, hard or soft capsules, or syrups or elixirs. Compositions intended for oral use may be prepared according to any method known in the art for the manufacture of pharmaceutical compositions and such compositions may contain one or more agents selected from the group consisting of sweetening agents, flavoring agents, coloring agents and preserving agents in order to provide pharmaceutically elegant and palatable preparations. Tablets contain the active ingredient in admixture with non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable excipients which are suitable for the manufacture of tablets. These excipients may be, for example, inert diluents, such as calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, lactose, calcium phosphate or sodium phosphate; granulating and disintegrating agents, for example, maize starch, or alginic acid; binding agents, for example starch, gelatin or acacia, and lubricating agents, for example magnesium stearate, stearic acid or talc. The tablets may be uncoated or they may be coated by known techniques to delay disintegration and adsorption in the gastrointestinal tract and thereby provide a sustained action over a longer period. For example, a time delay material such as glyceryl monostearate or glyceryl distearate may be employed.

[0444] Formulations for oral use may also be presented as hard gelatin capsules wherein the active ingredients are mixed with an inert solid diluent, for example, calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate or kaolin, or as soft gelatin capsules wherein the active ingredients are present as such, or mixed with water or an oil medium, for example, peanut oil, liquid paraffin, or olive oil.

[0445] Aqueous suspensions can be produced that contain the active materials in admixture with excipients suitable for the manufacture of aqueous suspensions. Such excipients are suspending agents, for example, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose, sodium alginate, polyvinylpyrrolidone gum tragacanth and gum acacia; dispersing or wetting agents may be naturally-occurring phosphatides, for example lecithin, or condensation products of an alkylene oxide with fatty acids, for example polyoxyethylene stearate, or condensation products of ethylene oxide with long chain aliphatic alcohols, for example heptadecaethyleneoxycetanol, or condensation products of ethylene oxide with partial esters derived from fatty acids and a hexitol such as polyoxyethylene sorbitol monooleate, or condensation products of ethylene oxide with partial esters derived from fatty acids and hexitol anhydrides, for example polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate.

[0446] The aqueous suspensions may also contain one or more preservatives, for example, ethyl or n-propyl p-hydroxybenzoate, one or more coloring agents, one or more flavoring agents, or one or more sweetening agents, such as sucrose or saccharin.

[0447] Oily suspensions may be formulated by suspending the active ingredients in an omega-3 fatty acid, a vegetable oil, for example arachis oil, olive oil, sesame oil or coconut oil, or in a mineral oil such as liquid paraffin. The oily suspensions may contain a thickening agent, for example beeswax, hard paraffin or cetyl alcohol.

[0448] Sweetening agents, such as those set forth above, and flavoring agents may be added to provide a palatable oral preparation. These compositions may be preserved by the addition of an antioxidant such as ascorbic acid.

[0449] Dispersible powders and granules suitable for preparation of an aqueous suspension by the addition of water provide the active ingredient in admixture with a dispersing or wetting agent, a suspending agent and one or more preservatives. Suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents are exemplified by those already mentioned above. Additional excipients, for example sweetening, flavoring and coloring agents, may also be present.

[0450] Syrups and elixirs containing the novel combination may be formulated with sweetening agents, for example glycerol, sorbitol or sucrose. Such formulations may also contain a demulcent, a preservative and flavoring and coloring agents.

[0451] The subject pharmaceutical composition of COX 2 inhibitor(s) in connection with the present inventive method can also be administered parenterally, either subcutaneously, or intravenously, or intramuscularly, or intrasternally, or by infusion techniques, in the form of sterile injectable aqueous or olagenous suspensions. Such suspensions may be formulated according to the known art using those suitable dispersing of wetting agents and suspending agents which have been mentioned above, or other acceptable agents. The sterile injectable preparation may also be a sterile injectable solution or suspension in a non-toxic parenterally-acceptable diluent or solvent, for example as a solution in 1,3-butanediol. Among the acceptable vehicles and solvents that may be employed are water, Ringer's solution and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, sterile, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solvent or suspending medium. For this purpose, any bland fixed oil may be employed including synthetic mono- or diglycerides. In addition, n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids may find use in the preparation of injectables.

[0452] The subject pharmaceutical composition of COX 2 inhibitor(s) in connection with the present inventive method can also be administered by inhalation, in the form of aerosols or solutions for nebulizers, or rectally, in the form of suppositories prepared by mixing the drug with a suitable non-irritating excipient which is solid at ordinary temperature but liquid at the rectal temperature and will therefore melt in the rectum to release the drug. Such materials are cocoa butter and poly-ethylene glycols.

[0453] The pharmaceutical compositions of COX 2 inhibitor(s) in connection with the present inventive method can also be administered topically, in the form of patches, creams, ointments, jellies, collyriums, solutions or suspensions. Of course, the compositions of the present invention can be administered by routes of administration other than topical administration.

[0454] Daily dosages can vary within wide limits and will be adjusted to the individual requirements in each particular case. In general, for administration to adults, an appropriate daily dosage has been described above, although the limits that were identified as being preferred may be exceeded if expedient. The daily dosage can be administered as a single dosage or in divided dosages.

[0455] Various delivery systems include capsules, tablets, and gelatin capsules, for example.

[0456] The following examples describe embodiments of the invention. Other embodiments within the scope of the embodiments herein will be apparent to one skilled in the art from consideration of the specification or practice of the invention as disclosed herein. It is intended that the specification, together with the examples, be considered to be exemplary only, with the scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by the embodiments and the examples. In the examples, all percentages are given on a weight basis unless otherwise indicated.

[0457] All references cited in this specification, including without limitation, all papers, publications, patents, patent applications, presentations, texts, reports, manuscripts, brochures, books, internet postings, journal articles, periodicals, and the like, are hereby incorporated by reference into this specification in their entireties. The discussion of the references herein is intended merely to summarize the assertions made by their authors and no admission is made that any reference constitutes prior art. Applicants reserve the right to challenge the accuracy and pertinency of the cited references.

[0458] In view of the above, it will be seen that the several advantages of the invention are achieved and other advantageous results obtained.

[0459] As various changes could be made in the above methods and compositions without departing from the scope of the invention, it is intended that all matter contained in this application shall be interpreted as illustrative and not in a limiting sense. Exemplary non-limiting embodiments of the present invention are provided below.

[0460] Exemplary PD symptoms that may be treated with the compositions of Tables 1-1A above are indicated in Table 3 below: TABLE 3 Exemplary PD Indication(s) treated with the COX 2-specific No. inhibitor of Tables 1-1A  1. Tremor  2. Rigidity  3. Bradykinesia  4. Postural defects  5. Reduced blinking  6. Difficulties in communicating including, but not limited to, voice volume and tone, etc.  7. Micrographia  8. Impaired ocular conversion  9. Sialorrhea 10. Seborrhea 11. Loss of facial expression 12. Freezing 13. Depression 14. Hallucinations 15. Psychiatric Manifestations

[0461] The following Tables 4 and 5 list various dosage forms of the pharmaceutical composition for use in conjunction with the method of the present invention. Note that the dosage forms in Table 5 exclude all dosage forms that may be transdermally applied. By contrast, Table 6 includes such transdermally applied dosage forms. TABLE 4 Exemplary Dosage Forms (other than those No. that are transdermally applied)  1. Oral dosage forms  2. Tablet  3. Slow Release Tablet  4. Effervescent Tablet  5. Enteric Coated Tablet  6. Compressed Tablet  7. Molded Tablet  8. Capsule  9. Slow Release Capsule 10. Capsule for Use in or with Nebulizer 11. Gelatin Capsule 12. Caplet 13. Troche 14. Powder 15. Lozenge 16. Gum 17. Solution 18. Suspension 19. Emulsion 20. Dispersion 21. Parenteral Dosage Form 22. Intramuscular Injection 23. Intravenous Injection 24. Inhalant 25. Aerosol 26. Nebulizing Liquid 27. Elixir 28. Collyria 29. Injection 30. Pellets 31. Implants 32. Otic Solution 33. Suppository 34. Syrup 35. Tincture 36. Opthalmic Solution 37. Oral Gel 38. Oral Paste 39. Oral Inhalant

[0462] TABLE 5 No. Exemplary dosage Forms (that are topically applied)  1. Liquid  2. Emulsion  3. Dispersion  4. Gel  5. Paste  6. Cream  7. Lotion  8. Extract  9. Ointment 10. Patch 11. Implant 12. Pellet 13. Topical Powder 14. Topical Solution

[0463] For a more complete list of dosage forms in addition to those provided in Tables 4 and 5, see Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa., Arthur Osol (editor), 16^(th) Edition (1980). Also see each of the later editions of the same (i.e., each later edition to date of Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences). Also see, The United States Pharmacopeia, 21^(st) Edition, United States Pharmacopeial Convention, Washington, D.C. (1985). Also see each of the later editions of the same (i.e., each later edition to date of The United States Pharmacopeia). 

1. A method for the treatment of Parkinson's disease comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a COX 2 inhibitor to a patient in need thereof, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor has structural Formula (I):

or an isomer, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof; wherein: G is O, S or NR^(a); R^(a) is alkyl; R¹ is H or aryl; R² is carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarbonyl or alkoxycarbonyl; R³ is haloalkyl, alkyl, aralkyl, cycloalkyl, or aryl optionally and independently substituted with one or more radicals selected from alkylthio, nitro and alkylsulfonyl; n is an integer which is 1, 2, 3, or 4; and each R⁴ is independently H, halo, alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, alkoxy, aryloxy, heteroaryloxy, aralkyloxy, heteroaralkyloxy, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, alkylamino, arylamino, aralkylamino, heteroarylamino, heteroarylalkylamino, nitro, amino, aminosulfonyl, mono- or dialkylaminosulfonyl, arylaminosulfonyl, heteroarylaminosulfonyl, aralkylaminosulfonyl, heteroaralkylaminosulfonyl, heterocyclosulfonyl, alkylsulfonyl, hydroxyarylcarbonyl, nitroaryl, aralkylcarbonyl, heteroarylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylcarbonyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; wherein said aryl and heteroaryl radicals are optionally and independently substituted with one or more radicals which are alkyl, haloalkyl, cyano, carboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, hydroxyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkoxy, amino, alkylamino, arylamino, nitro, alkoxyalkyl, alkylsulfinyl, halo, alkoxy or alkylthio; or wherein R⁴ together with the atoms to which R⁴ is attached and the remainder of ring E forms a naphthyl radical.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein: G is O or S; R² is carboxyl, lower alkyl, lower aralkyl and lower alkoxycarbonyl; R³ is lower haloalkyl, lower cycloalkyl, or phenyl; and each of one or more R⁴ is independently H, halo, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, lower haloalkyl, lower haloalkoxy, lower alkylamino, nitro, amino, aminosulfonyl, lower alkylaminosulfonyl, 5-membered heteroarylalkylaminosulfonyl, 6-membered heteroarylalkylaminosulfonyl, lower aralkylaminosulfonyl, 5-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclosulfonyl, 6-membered-nitrogen containing heterocyclosulfonyl, lower alkylsulfonyl, lower aralkylcarbonyl, lower alkylcarbonyl, and phenyl optionally and independently substituted with one or more radicals selected from the group consisting of alkyl, haloalkyl, cyano, carboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, hydroxyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkoxy, amino, alkylamino, arylamino, nitro, alkoxyalkyl, alkylsulfinyl, halo, alkoxy or alkylthio; or wherein R⁴ together with the atoms to which R⁴ is attached and the remainder of ring E forms a naphthyl radical.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein: R² is carboxyl; R³ is lower haloalkyl; and each of one or more R⁴ is independently H, halo, lower alkyl, lower haloalkyl, lower haloalkoxy, lower alkylamino, amino, aminosulfonyl, lower alkylaminosulfonyl, 5-membered heteroarylalkylaminosulfonyl, 6-membered heteroarylalkylaminosulfonyl, lower aralkylaminosulfonyl, lower alkylsulfonyl, 6-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclosulfonyl, optionally substituted phenyl, lower aralkylcarbonyl, or lower alkylcarbonyl; or wherein R⁴ together with the atoms to which R⁴ is attached and the remainder of ring E forms a naphthyl radical.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein: said lower haloalkyl R³ is fluoromethyl, chloromethyl, dichloromethyl, trichloromethyl, pentafluoroethyl, heptafluoropropyl, difluoroethyl, difluoropropyl, dichloroethyl, dichloropropyl, difluoromethyl, or trifluoromethyl; and each or one or more R⁴ is independently H, chloro, fluoro, bromo, iodo, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, tert-butyl, butyl, isobutyl, pentyl, hexyl, methoxy, ethoxy, isopropyloxy, tertbutyloxy, trifluoromethyl, difluoromethyl, trifluoromethoxy, amino, N,N-dimethylamino, N,N-diethylamino, N-phenylmethylaminosulfonyl, N-phenylethylaminosulfonyl, N-(2-furylmethyl)aminosulfonyl, nitro, N,N-dimethylaminosulfonyl, aminosulfonyl, N-methylaminosulfonyl, benzylaminosulfonyl, N-ethylsulfonyl, 2,2-dimethylethylaminosulfonyl, N,N-dimethylaminosulfonyl, isopropylaminosulfonyl, N-(2-methylpropyl)aminosulfonyl, N-morpholinosulfonyl, methylsulfonyl, benzylcarbonyl, 2,2-dimethylpropylcarbonyl, phenylacetyl, or phenyl; or wherein R⁴ together with the atoms to which R⁴ is attached and the remainder of the ring E forms a naphthyl radical.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein: R³ is trifluoromethyl or pentafluoroethyl; and each of one or more R⁴ is independently H, chloro, fluoro, bromo, iodo, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, tert-butyl, methoxy, trifluoromethyl, trifluoromethoxy, N,N-diethylamino, N-phenylmethylaminosulfonyl, N-phenylethylaminosulfonyl, N-(2-furylmethyl)aminosulfonyl, N,N-dimethylaminosulfonyl, N-methylaminosulfonyl, benzylaminosulfonyl, N-(2,2-dimethylethyl)aminosulfonyl, isopropylaminosulfonyl, dimethylaminosulfonyl, 2-methylpropylaminosulfonyl, N-morpholinosulfonyl, methylsulfonyl, benzylcarbonyl, or phenyl; or wherein R⁴ together with the atoms to which R⁴ is attached and the remainder of ring E forms a naphthyl radical.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein: R³ is trifluoromethyl or pentafluoroethyl; each of one or more R⁴ is independently H, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, tert-butyl, chloro, bromo, fluoro, iodo, methyl, tert-butyl, trifluoromethoxy, methoxy, benzylcarbonyl, dimethylaminosulfonyl, isopropylaminosulfonyl, N-methylaminosulfonyl, benzylaminosulfonyl, phenylethylaminosulfonyl, methylpropylaminosulfonyl, methylsulfonyl, morpholinosulfonyl, N,N-diethylamino, or phenyl.
 7. A method for the treatment of Parkinson's disease comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a COX 2 inhibitor to a patient in need thereof, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor has the structural Formula (II):

or an isomer, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof, wherein: D is an unsaturated, partially unsaturated, or saturated hetercyclyl ring or an unsaturated, partially unsaturated, or saturated carbocyclic ring, provided that Formula (II) is not celecoxib (B-18) or refecoxib (B-21); R¹³ is heterocyclyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl or aryl, wherein R¹³ is optionally substituted at a substitutable position with one or more radicals which are alkyl, haloalkyl, cyano, carboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, hydroxyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkoxy, amino, alkylamino, arylamino, nitro, alkoxyalkyl, alkylsulfinyl, halo, alkoxy or alkylthio; R¹⁴ is methyl or amino; and R¹⁵ is H, halo, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, oxo, cyano, carboxyl, cyanoalkyl, heterocyclyloxy, alkyloxy, alkylthio, alkylcarbonyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloalkyl, heterocyclyl, cycloalkenyl, aralkyl, heterocyclylalkyl, acyl, alkylthioalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, alkoxycarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, aralkylcarbonyl, aralkenyl, alkoxyalkyl, arylthioalkyl, aryloxyalkyl, aralkylthioalkyl, aralkoxyalkyl, alkoxyaralkoxyalkyl, alkoxycarbonylalkyl, aminocarbonyl, aminocarbonylalkyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, N-arylaminocarbonyl, N-alkyl-N-arylaminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonylalkyl, carboxyalkyl, alkylamino, N-arylamino, N-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-N-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-N-arylamino, aminoalkyl, alkylaminoalkyl, N-arylaminoalkyl, N-aralkylaminoalkyl, N-alkyl-N-aralkylaminoalkyl, N-alkyl-N-arylaminoalkyl, aryloxy, aralkoxy, arylthio, aralkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, aminosulfonyl, alkylaminosulfonyl, N-arylaminosulfonyl, arylsulfonyl, or N-alkyl-N-arylaminosulfonyl.
 8. A method for the treatment of Parkinson's disease comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a COX 2 inhibitor to a patient in need thereof, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor has the structural Formula (III):

or an isomer, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof, wherein: R¹⁶ is methyl or ethyl; R¹⁷ is chloro or fluoro; R¹⁸ is hydrogen or fluoro; R¹⁹ is hydrogen, fluoro, chloro, methyl, ethyl, methoxy, ethoxy or hydroxy; R²⁰ is hydrogen or fluoro; and R²¹ is chloro, fluoro, trifluoromethyl or methyl, provided that R¹⁷, R¹⁸, R¹⁹ and R²⁰ are not all fluoro when R¹⁶ is ethyl and R¹⁹ is H.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein: R¹⁶ is ethyl; R¹⁷ and R¹⁹ are chloro; R¹⁸ and R²⁰ are hydrogen; and R²¹ is methyl.
 10. A method for the treatment of Parkinson's disease comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a COX 2 inhibitor to a patient in need thereof, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor has the structural Formula (IV):

or an isomer, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof, wherein: X is O or S; J is a carbocycle or a heterocycle; R²² is NHSO₂CH₃ or F; R²³ is H, NO₂, or F; and R²⁴ is H, NHSO₂CH₃, or (SO₂CH₃)C₆H₄.
 11. The method of claim 10 wherein the COX 2 inhibitor is nimesulide, flosulide, NS-398, L-745337, RWJ-63556, or L-784512.
 12. A method for the treatment of Parkinson's disease comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a COX 2 inhibitor to a patient in need thereof, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor has the structural Formula (V):

or an isomer or pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof, wherein: T and M independently are phenyl, naphthyl, a radical derived from a heterocycle comprising 5 to 6 members and possessing from 1 to 4 heteroatoms, or a radical derived from a saturated hydrocarbon ring having from 3 to 7 carbon atoms; Q¹, Q², L¹ or L² are independently hydrogen, halogen, lower alkyl having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms, trifluoromethyl, or lower methoxy having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms; and at least one of Q¹, Q², L¹ or L² is in the para position and is —S(O)_(n)—R, wherein n is 0, 1, or 2 and R is a lower alkyl radical having 1 to 6 carbon atoms, a lower haloalkyl radical having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms, or an —SO₂NH₂; or, Q¹ and Q² are methylenedioxy; or L¹ and L² are methylenedioxy; and R²⁵, R²⁶, R²⁷, and R²⁸ are independently hydrogen, halogen, lower alkyl radical having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms, lower haloalkyl radical having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms, or an aromatic radical selected from the group consisting of phenyl, naphthyl, thienyl, furyl and pyridyl; or, R²⁵ and R²⁶ are O; or, R²⁷ and R²⁸ are O; or, R²⁵, R²⁶, together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a saturated hydrocarbon ring having from 3 to 7 carbon atoms; or, R²⁷, R²⁸, together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a saturated hydrocarbon ring having from 3 to 7 carbon atoms.
 13. The method of claim 12 wherein the COX 2 inhibitor is N-(2-cyclohexyloxynitrophenyl)methane sulfonamide, or (E)-4-[(4-methylphenyl)(tetrahydro-2-oxo-3-furanylidene) methyl]benzenesulfonamide.
 14. A method for the treatment of Parkinson's disease comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a COX 2 inhibitor to a patient in need thereof, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor is a compound designated as B-1, B-2, B-3, B-4, B-5, B-6, B-7, B-8, B-9, B-10, B-11, B-12, B-13, B-14, B-15, B-16, B-17, B-19, B-20, B-22, B-23, B-24, B-25, B-26, B-27, B-28, B-29, B-30, B-31, B-32, B-33, B-34, B-35, B-36, B-37, B-38, B-39, B-40, B-41, B-42, B-43, B-44, B-45, B-46, B-47, B-48, B-49, B-50, B-51, B-52, B-53, B-54, B-55, B-56, B-57, B-58, B-59, B-60, B-61, B-62, B-63, B-64, B-65, B-66, B-67, B-68, B-69, B-70, B-71, B-72, B-73, B-74, B-75, B-76, B-77, B-78, B-79, B-80, B-81, B-82, B-83, B-84, B-85, B-86, B-87, B-88, B-89, B-90, B-91, B-92, B-93, B-94, B-95, B-96, B-97, B-98, B-99, B-100, B-101, B-102, B-103, B-104, B-105, B-106, B-107, B-108, B-109, B-110, B-111, B-112, B-113, B-114, B-115, B-116, B-117, B-118, B-119, B-120, B-121, B-122, B-123, B-124, B-125, B-126, B-127, B-128, B-129, B-130, B-131, B-132, B-133, B-134, B-135, B-136, B-137, B-138, B-139, B-140, B-141, B-142, B-143, B-144, B-145, B-146, B-147, B-148, B-149, B-150, B-151, B-152, B-153, B-154, B-155, B-156, B-157, B-158, B-159, B-160, B-161, B-162, B-163, B-164, B-165, B-166, B-167, B-168, B-169, B-170, B-171, B-172, B-173, B-174, B-175, B-176, B-177, B-178, B-179, B-180, B-181, B-182, B-183, B-184, B-185, B-186, B-187, B-188, B-189, B-190, B-191, B-192, B-193, B-194, B-195, B-196, B-197, B-198, B-199, B-200, B-201, B-202, B-203, B-204, B-205, B-206, B-207, B-208, B-209, B-210, B-211, B-212, B-213, B-214, B-215, B-216, B-217, B-218, B-219, B-220, B-221, B-222, B-223, B-224, B-225, B-226, B-227, B-228, B-229, B-230, B-231, B-232, or an isomer, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof.
 15. The method of claim 14 wherein the COX 2 inhibitor is valdecoxib, deracoxib, etoricoxib, JTE-522, parecoxib, ABT-963, or BMS-347070, and an isomer, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof.
 16. The method of claim 15 wherein the COX 2 inhibitor is rofecoxib, etoricoxib, JTE-522, parecoxib, ABT-963, or BMS-347070.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor is sodium parecoxib.
 18. The method of claim 1, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor or isomer or pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 2 IC₅₀ of less than about 5 μmol/L.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor or isomer or pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a selectivity ratio of COX 1 IC₅₀ to COX 2 IC₅₀ of at least about
 10. 20. The method of claim 1, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor or isomer or pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 2 IC₅₀ of less than about 1 μmol/L and a selectivity ratio of COX 1 IC₅₀ to COX 2 IC₅₀ of at least about
 100. 21. The method of claim 18, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor or isomer or pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 1 IC₅₀ of at least about 1 μmol/L.
 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor or isomer or pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 1 IC₅₀ of at least about 20 μmol/L.
 23. The method of claim 1, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.001 to about 100 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.05 to about 50 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.5 to about 5 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 26. The method of claim 1, wherein the patient is an animal.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the patient is a human.
 28. The method of claim 1, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor is administered enterally or parenterally in one or more doses per day.
 29. The method of claim 7, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 2 IC₅₀ of less than about 5 μmol/L.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a selectivity ratio of COX 1 IC₅₀ to COX 2 IC₅₀ of at least about
 10. 31. The method of claim 7, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 2 IC₅₀ of less than about 1 μmol/L and a selectivity ratio of COX 1 IC₅₀ to COX 2 IC₅₀ of at least about
 100. 32. The method of claim 29, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 1 IC₅₀ of at least about 1 μmol/L.
 33. The method of claim 32, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 1 IC₅₀ of at least about 20 μmol/L.
 34. The method of claim 7, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.001 to about 100 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.05 to about 50 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 36. The method of claim 35, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.5 to about 5 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 37. The method of claim 7, wherein the patient is an animal.
 38. The method of claim 37, wherein the patient is a human.
 39. The method of claim 7, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor is administered enterally or parenterally in one or more doses per day.
 40. The method of claim 8, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 2 IC₅₀ of less than about 5 μmol/L.
 41. The method of claim 40, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a selectivity ratio of COX 1 IC₅₀ to COX 2 IC₅₀ of at least about
 10. 42. The method of claim 8, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 2 IC₅₀ of less than about 1 μmol/L and a selectivity ratio of COX 1 IC₅₀ to COX 2 IC₅₀ of at least about
 100. 43. The method of claim 40, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 1 IC₅₀ of at least about 1 μmol/L.
 44. The method of claim 43, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 1 IC₅₀ of at least about 20 μmol/L.
 45. The method of claim 8, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.001 to about 100 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 46. The method of claim 45, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.05 to about 50 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 47. The method of claim 46, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.5 to about 5 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 48. The method of claim 8, wherein the patient is an animal.
 49. The method of claim 48, wherein the patient is a human.
 50. The method of claim 8, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor is administered enterally or parenterally in one or more doses per day.
 51. The method of claim 10, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 2 IC₅₀ of less than about 5 μmol/L.
 52. The method of claim 51, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a selectivity ratio of COX 1 IC₅₀ to COX 2 IC₅₀ of at least about
 10. 53. The method of claim 10, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 2 IC₅₀ of less than about 1 μmol/L and a selectivity ratio of COX 1 IC₅₀ to COX 2 IC₅₀ of at least about
 100. 54. The method of claim 51, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 1 IC₅₀ of at least about 1 μmol/L.
 55. The method of claim 54, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 1 IC₅₀ of at least about 20 μmol/L.
 56. The method of claim 10, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.001 to about 100 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 57. The method of claim 56, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.05 to about 50 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 58. The method of claim 57, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.5 to about 5 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 59. The method of claim 10, wherein the patient is an animal.
 60. The method of claim 59, wherein the patient is a human.
 61. The method of claim 10, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor is administered enterally or parenterally in one or more doses per day.
 62. The method of claim 12, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 2 IC₅₀ of less than about 5 μmol/L.
 63. The method of claim 62, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a selectivity ratio of COX 1 IC₅₀ to COX 2 IC₅₀ of at least about
 10. 64. The method of claim 12, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 2 IC₅₀ of less than about 1 μmol/L and a selectivity ratio of COX 1 IC₅₀ to COX 1 IC₅₀ of at least about
 100. 65. The method of claim 62, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 1 IC₅₀ of at least about 1 μmol/L.
 66. The method of claim 65, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 1 IC₅₀ of at least about 20 μmol/L.
 67. The method of claim 12, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.001 to about 100 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 68. The method of claim 67, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.05 to about 50 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 69. The method of claim 68, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.5 to about 5 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 70. The method of claim 12, wherein the patient is an animal.
 71. The method of claim 70, wherein the patient is a human.
 72. The method of claim 12, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor is administered enterally or parenterally in one or more doses per day.
 73. The method of claim 14, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 2 IC₅₀ of less than about 5 μmol/L.
 74. The method of claim 73, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a selectivity ratio of COX 1 IC₅₀ to COX 2 IC₅₀ of at least about
 10. 75. The method of claim 14, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 2 IC₅₀ of less than about 1 μmol/L and a selectivity ratio of COX 1 IC₅₀ to COX 2 IC₅₀ of at least about
 100. 76. The method of claim 73, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 1 IC₅₀ of at least about 1 μmol/L.
 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor, isomer, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof has a COX 1 IC₅₀ of at least about 20 μmol/L.
 78. The method of claim 14, wherein the. therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.001 to about 100 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 79. The method of claim 78, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.05 to about 50 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 80. The method of claim 79, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.5 to about 5 mg/day per kg of body weight of the patient.
 81. The method of claim 14, wherein the patient is an animal.
 82. The method of claim 81, wherein the patient is a human.
 83. The method of claim 14, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor is administered enterally or parenterally in one or more doses per day.
 84. A method for the treatment of Parkinson's disease consisting essentially of administering a therapeutically effective amount of a COX 2 inhibitor to a patient in need thereof, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor has the structural Formula (II):

or an isomer, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof, wherein: D is an unsaturated, partially unsaturated, or saturated hetercyclyl ring or an unsaturated, partially unsaturated, or saturated carbocyclic ring; R¹³ is heterocyclyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl or aryl, wherein R¹³ is optionally substituted at a substitutable position with one or more radicals which are alkyl, haloalkyl, cyano, carboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, hydroxyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkoxy, amino, alkylamino, arylamino, nitro, alkoxyalkyl, alkylsulfinyl, halo, alkoxy or alkylthio; R¹⁴ is methyl or amino; and R¹⁵ is H, halo, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, oxo, cyano, carboxyl, cyanoalkyl, heterocyclyloxy, alkyloxy, alkylthio, alkylcarbonyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloalkyl, heterocyclyl, cycloalkenyl, aralkyl, heterocyclylalkyl, acyl, alkylthioalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, alkoxycarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, aralkylcarbonyl, aralkenyl, alkoxyalkyl, arylthioalkyl, aryloxyalkyl, aralkylthioalkyl, aralkoxyalkyl, alkoxyaralkoxyalkyl, alkoxycarbonylalkyl, aminocarbonyl, aminocarbonylalkyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, N-arylaminocarbonyl, N-alkyl-N-arylaminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonylalkyl, carboxyalkyl, alkylamino, N-arylamino, N-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-N-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-N-arylamino, aminoalkyl, alkylaminoalkyl, N-arylaminoalkyl, N-aralkylaminoalkyl, N-alkyl-N-aralkylaminoalkyl, N-alkyl-N-arylaminoalkyl, aryloxy, aralkoxy, arylthio, aralkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, aminosulfonyl, alkylaminosulfonyl, N-arylaminosulfonyl, arylsulfonyl, or N-alkyl-N-arylaminosulfonyl.
 85. A method for the treatment of Parkinson's disease consisting of administering a therapeutically effective amount of a COX 2 inhibitor to a patient in need thereof, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor is a compound designated as B-1, B-2, B-3, B-4, B-5, B-6, B-7, B-8, B-9, B-10, B-11, B-12, B-13, B-14, B-15, B-16, B-17, B-18, B-19, B-20, B-21, B-22, B-23, B-24, B-25, B-26, B-27, B-28, B-29, B-30, B-31, B-32, B-33, B-34, B-35, B-36, B-37, B-38, B-39, B-40, B-41, B-42, B-43, B-44, B-45, B-46, B-47, B-48, B-49, B-50, B-51, B-52, B-53, B-54, B-55, B-56, B-57, B-58, B-59, B-60, B-61, B-62, B-63, B-64, B-65, B-66, B-67, B-68, B-69, B-70, B-71, B-72, B-73, B-74, B-75, B-76, B-77, B-78, B-79, B-80, B-81, B-82, B-83, B-84, B-85, B-86, B-87, B-88, B-89, B-90, B-91, B-92, B-93, B-94, B-95, B-96, B-97, B-98, B-99, B-100, B-101, B-102, B-103, B-104, B-105, B-106, B-107, B-108, B-109, B-110, B-111, B-112, B-113, B-114, B-115, B-116, B-117, B-118, B-119, B-120, B-121, B-122, B-123, B-124, B-125, B-126, B-127, B-128, B-129, B-130, B-131, B-132, B-133, B-134, B-135, B-136, B-137, B-138, B-139, B-140, B-141, B-142, B-143, B-144, B-145, B-146, B-147, B-148, B-149, B-150, B-151, B-152, B-153, B-154, B-155, B-156, B-157, B-158, B-159, B-160, B-161, B-162, B-163, B-164, B-165, B-166, B-167, B-168, B-169, B-170, B-171, B-172, B-173, B-174, B-175, B-176, B-177, B-178, B-179, B-180, B-181, B-182, B-183, B-184, B-185, B-186, B-187, B-188, B-189, B-190, B-191, B-192, B-193, B-194, B-195, B-196, B-197, B-198, B-199, B-200, B-201, B-202, B-203, B-204, B-205, B-206, B-207, B-208, B-209, B-210, B-211, B-212, B-213, B-214, B-215, B-216, B-217, B-218, B-219, B-220, B-221, B-222, B-223, B-224, B-225, B-226, B-227, B-228, B-229, B-230, B-231, B-232, or an isomer, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof.
 86. A method for the treatment of Parkinson's disease consisting of administering a therapeutically effective amount of a COX 2 inhibitor to a patient in need thereof, wherein the COX 2 inhibitor has the structural Formula (II):

or an isomer, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof, wherein: D is an unsaturated, partially unsaturated, or saturated heterocyclyl ring or an unsaturated, partially unsaturated, or saturated carbocyclic ring; R¹³ is heterocyclyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl or aryl, wherein R¹³ is optionally substituted at a substitutable position with one or more radicals which are alkyl, haloalkyl, cyano, carboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, hydroxyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkoxy, amino, alkylamino, arylamino, nitro, alkoxyalkyl, alkylsulfinyl, halo, alkoxy or alkylthio; R¹⁴ is methyl or amino; and R¹⁵ is H, halo, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, oxo, cyano, carboxyl, cyanoalkyl, heterocyclyloxy, alkyloxy, alkylthio, alkylcarbonyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloalkyl, heterocyclyl, cycloalkenyl, aralkyl, heterocyclylalkyl, acyl, alkylthioalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, alkoxycarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, aralkylcarbonyl, aralkenyl, alkoxyalkyl, arylthioalkyl, aryloxyalkyl, aralkylthioalkyl, aralkoxyalkyl, alkoxyaralkoxyalkyl, alkoxycarbonylalkyl, aminocarbonyl, aminocarbonylalkyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, N-arylaminocarbonyl, N-alkyl-N-arylaminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonylalkyl, carboxyalkyl, alkylamino, N-arylamino, N-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-N-aralkylamino, N-alkyl-N-arylamino, aminoalkyl, alkylaminoalkyl, N-arylaminoalkyl, N-aralkylaminoalkyl, N-alkyl-N-aralkylaminoalkyl, N-alkyl-N-arylaminoalkyl, aryloxy, aralkoxy, arylthio, aralkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, aminosulfonyl, alkylaminosulfonyl, N-arylaminosulfonyl, arylsulfonyl, or N-alkyl-N-arylaminosulfonyl. 